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Full-Text Articles in Social and Behavioral Sciences

A Textbook Equity Student Advisory Board, Karlee Colby, Anne Marie H. Gruber Jan 2025

A Textbook Equity Student Advisory Board, Karlee Colby, Anne Marie H. Gruber

Faculty Publications

Engaging college students in advocacy related to open educational resources (OER) is an important way to raise awareness and encourage OER adoption on campuses in higher education. The student perspective is vital to encouraging instructors and administrators to be responsive to student needs, concerns, and preferences related to course materials access, and to consider affordability and usage rights. This case study describes the library-facilitated Textbook Equity Student Advisory Board at the University of Northern Iowa, a medium-sized regional comprehensive university. The board serves as a two-way communication outlet between textbook equity campus leaders and students, including student government. This article …


Build Your Capacity For Aging Research: A Research Readiness Curriculum, Carrie Leach, Mikayla Harrison, Zachary Rowe, Dell Stubblefield, Deborah Beard, Winona Bynum, Sandra Turner-Handy, Faith Hopp, Rodlescia Sneed, Deborah Charbonneau, Rochelle Chapman, Hayley S. Thompson Jan 2025

Build Your Capacity For Aging Research: A Research Readiness Curriculum, Carrie Leach, Mikayla Harrison, Zachary Rowe, Dell Stubblefield, Deborah Beard, Winona Bynum, Sandra Turner-Handy, Faith Hopp, Rodlescia Sneed, Deborah Charbonneau, Rochelle Chapman, Hayley S. Thompson

Institute of Gerontology

This curriculum was developed with and for older adults in order to provide a basic understanding of the academic research process and to familiarize them with research terms and concepts to increase thier overall level of confidence engaging with researchers.


Age-Friendly Technology Toolkit, Carrie Leach, Mikayla Harrison, Deborah Beard, Dell Stubblefield, Zachary Rowe, Winona Bynum, Sandra Turner-Handy, Faith Hopp, Rodlescia Sneed, Deborah Charbonneau, Rochelle Chapman, Hayley S. Thompson Jan 2025

Age-Friendly Technology Toolkit, Carrie Leach, Mikayla Harrison, Deborah Beard, Dell Stubblefield, Zachary Rowe, Winona Bynum, Sandra Turner-Handy, Faith Hopp, Rodlescia Sneed, Deborah Charbonneau, Rochelle Chapman, Hayley S. Thompson

Institute of Gerontology

A toolkit created for older people who are interested in connecting through technology. Content is based on recommendations from older adults who partnered on a project to increase digital inclusion.


Above And Belowground Biomass Of A Multidecadal Restored Tallgrass Prairie Chronosequence And Its Influence On Soil Carbon Dynamics, Adam John Bauer Jan 2025

Above And Belowground Biomass Of A Multidecadal Restored Tallgrass Prairie Chronosequence And Its Influence On Soil Carbon Dynamics, Adam John Bauer

Graduate Research Theses & Dissertations

Evidence supports the idea that tallgrass prairie restoration has the potential to sequester carbon, but the influences of site age and quality on restored tallgrass prairie carbon dynamics are not well known. This dissertation characterizes a multidecadal tallgrass prairie chronosequence and evaluates the influence of both restoration quality and time since restoration on biomass and soil carbon dynamics using both remotely sensed and field data collected from Nachusa Grasslands tallgrass prairie restorations. It also expands on the traditional aspatial analyses using geographically weighted data to examine the spatiotemporal variation in environmental variables that influence restored tall grass prairie carbon dynamics. …


Encouraging Selection Of Effective Learning Strategies, Kaya Easley Jan 2025

Encouraging Selection Of Effective Learning Strategies, Kaya Easley

Graduate Research Theses & Dissertations

College students have difficulty selecting effective learning strategies, often due to their perceptions of cost and value of these strategies. The goal of the present study was to examine ways to increase students’ perceptions of value to outweigh their perceptions of cost to help them select an effective learning strategy (generation). Students were randomly assigned to one of five conditions in an additive design: no treatment control, experience comparing generation to a less effective learning strategy, experience plus information about its application to one’s life, experience and application plus evidence of the effectiveness of generation, or experience, application, and evidence, …


Relationship Between Transformational Leadership And Employees' Psychological Safety, Minahil Khan Jan 2025

Relationship Between Transformational Leadership And Employees' Psychological Safety, Minahil Khan

SSLA Culminating Experience

This study explored how psychological safety manifests in the workplace and how it is influenced by transformational leadership. Using quantitative survey data from 101 employees—pre-dominantly based in Karachi, Pakistan—the research investigated the relationship between psychological safety and transformational leadership. It also explored whether there is a gender difference in the employees’ perception of transformational leadership and psychological safety. Findings indicate that transformational leadership has a significant positive correlation of 0.734 with psychological safety, which in turn enhances employees’ willingness to speak up and engage in creative problem-solving. Additionally results also indicated that there is no statistically significant gender difference in …


Guidelines For The Creation Of Accessible Consent Materials And Procedures: Lessons From Research With Autistic People And People With Intellectual Disability, Kelly B. Beck, Kristen T. Mackenziem, Anne V. Kirby, Ian Moura, Kaitlyn Breitenfeldt, Christina M. Nicolaidis, Shannon Roth, Multiple Additional Authors Jan 2025

Guidelines For The Creation Of Accessible Consent Materials And Procedures: Lessons From Research With Autistic People And People With Intellectual Disability, Kelly B. Beck, Kristen T. Mackenziem, Anne V. Kirby, Ian Moura, Kaitlyn Breitenfeldt, Christina M. Nicolaidis, Shannon Roth, Multiple Additional Authors

School of Social Work Faculty Publications and Presentations

Informed, voluntary, ongoing consent is a central tenet of ethical research. However, consent processes are prone to exclusionary practices and inaccessibility. Consent materials are often too long and complex to foster understanding and ensure that people make truly informed decisions to participate in research. While this complexity is problematic for all people, these challenges are compounded for autistic people and people with intellectual disability. Consent materials and procedures rarely incorporate accommodations for processing and communication differences common in autism and intellectual disability. Failure to provide such accommodations ultimately threatens the conduct of ethical research. We describe lessons learned across multiple …


Using Geographic Interviews To Conduct Community Assessments—Insights For Msw Pedagogy, Danielle Maude Littman, Denae J. Cook, Amie Thurber Jan 2025

Using Geographic Interviews To Conduct Community Assessments—Insights For Msw Pedagogy, Danielle Maude Littman, Denae J. Cook, Amie Thurber

School of Social Work Faculty Publications and Presentations

Social work is predicated as a person-in-environment profession, but few tools presently exist for students to operationalize person-in-environment through assessment and systematic understanding. Geographic interviews, which combine spatial mapping and qualitative go-along interviews, are one possible tool with promise for application in the social work classroom. This teaching note describes the process of integrating geographic interviews as one data collection method MSW students could utilize in a community assessment assignment. We share learnings from student assignments (N = 8) and instructor focus groups (N = 4). We found that while there was a high level of student and instructor interest, …


The Adaptive Roles Framework: Trauma Adaptations And Identity Formation, Steffannie Roache Jan 2025

The Adaptive Roles Framework: Trauma Adaptations And Identity Formation, Steffannie Roache

School of Social Work Faculty Publications and Presentations

The Adaptive Roles Framework is a culturally grounded conceptual model that explains how individuals develop patterned behavioral, emotional, and relational strategies in response to family systems, culture, trauma exposure, and social environments. Rather than conceptualizing behavior through pathology or personality typology, the framework positions behavioral patterns as adaptive survival strategies, responses that increased safety, belonging, or stability within specific environments and were reinforced over time because they worked. The framework identifies seven adaptive roles observed consistently across individuals, families, workplaces, and communities: the Guardian, the Translator, the Assimilator, the Archive Keeper, the Time Jumper, the Intellectual Escape Artist, and the …


The Chitlins Effect: Distinguishing Cultural Resilience From Normalized Harm, Steffannie Roache Jan 2025

The Chitlins Effect: Distinguishing Cultural Resilience From Normalized Harm, Steffannie Roache

School of Social Work Faculty Publications and Presentations

The Chitlins Effect is a practice framework developed to help behavioral health professionals distinguish between culturally rooted strengths and trauma-based patterns in the communities they serve. Named after a cultural example rooted in Black American history — where necessity became tradition, and survival became meaning — the framework describes how beliefs, behaviors, and coping mechanisms are transmitted across generations, becoming normalized within families, communities, and cultures even when those patterns carry harm. This paper introduces the conceptual foundation of the framework, situates it within existing research on historical trauma, intergenerational transmission, and social determinants of health, and outlines its application …


Groundbreaking Insights On Trauma And Justice: A Review Of Sexual Violence, Dissociation, And Inequality: A Guide To Understanding Traumatic Memory By Muriel Salmona, Kate Rose Jan 2025

Groundbreaking Insights On Trauma And Justice: A Review Of Sexual Violence, Dissociation, And Inequality: A Guide To Understanding Traumatic Memory By Muriel Salmona, Kate Rose

Dignity: A Journal of Analysis of Exploitation and Violence

No abstract provided.


Race, Diversity, And The Development Of Political Attitudes On College Campuses, Nathan Chan, Tanika Raychaudhuri Jan 2025

Race, Diversity, And The Development Of Political Attitudes On College Campuses, Nathan Chan, Tanika Raychaudhuri

Political Science and International Relations Faculty Works

Faced with demographic change, many colleges are offering courses about race and ethnicity. How does taking race-focused courses affect public opinion? We theorize that while White,Latino, and Asian American students develop more inclusive political attitudes through race-centered coursework, Black Americans may enter college with a deeper understanding of racial issues. We test these expectations using two longitudinal multi-racial datasets. First, using a national longitudinal survey of college students, we find that ethnic studies coursework is associated with increased recognition of racial discrimination among Whites, Latinos, and even Black Americans. Second, using an original panel survey from a public university, we …


The Group-Basis Of Political Behaviour Among Minoritized Communities: The Case Of Lgbtq+ Linked Fate And Sexual And Gender Minorities, Nathan K. Chan, Gabriele Magni Jan 2025

The Group-Basis Of Political Behaviour Among Minoritized Communities: The Case Of Lgbtq+ Linked Fate And Sexual And Gender Minorities, Nathan K. Chan, Gabriele Magni

Political Science and International Relations Faculty Works

LGBTQ+ individuals often display consistent political behaviour despite being internally diverse. We theorize about the importance of group-based heuristics to understand this cohesiveness by proposing the concept of LGBTQ+ linked fate. First, we argue that LGBTQ+ linked fate is stronger among privileged individuals within the LGBTQ+ community (white, cisgender, gays/lesbians) and among those whose life experiences have made their LGBTQ+ identity salient. Then, expanding on social identity theory, we posit that individuals with greater LGBTQ+ linked fate are more likely to hold group-based political attitudes and voice these preferences through electoral participation. We provide support for these claims using a …


Ladies' Choice: Intersectional Linked Fate And Public Opinion Toward Women Of Color In Politics, Nathan K. Chan, Joyce H. Nguy, Alexandria J. Davis Jan 2025

Ladies' Choice: Intersectional Linked Fate And Public Opinion Toward Women Of Color In Politics, Nathan K. Chan, Joyce H. Nguy, Alexandria J. Davis

Political Science and International Relations Faculty Works

This article seeks to understand the public opinion formation among women of color in America. How do identity-based factors, such as linked fate with women of color (WoC), shape political evaluations? Expanding on social identity theory and intersectionality frameworks, we investigate the political influences of WoC identification and WoC intersectional linked fate. We argue that intersectional linked fate represents a deeper sense of shared experiences and interconnected outcomes across race and gender, making this both a conceptually distinct construct and a politically consequential extension of WoC identity. Further, we theorize that women of color’s perceptions of intersectional linked fate drive …


Fatalism And Interest In Cancer Screening Among African American Individuals, Timothy J. Williamson, Mckenzie T. Reese Jan 2025

Fatalism And Interest In Cancer Screening Among African American Individuals, Timothy J. Williamson, Mckenzie T. Reese

Psychological Science Faculty Works

African American individuals experience disproportionately high cancer mortality compared to White individuals,1 partly due to reduced access to high-quality care, including at early stages of the care continuum (eg, screening).1 These structural barriers may be perceived as beyond individuals’ control and contribute to fatalistic beliefs about cancer, shaping attitudes toward screening. Cancer fatalism is a multidimensional construct that includes cancer mortality salience (associating cancer with death) and occurrence fatalism (perceiving cancer risk as uncontrollable).2,3 Evidence linking fatalism and screening is mixed,3-5 suggesting a need to analyze its distinct components separately.3 Therefore, we used a national dataset to assess how cancer …


How Long? How Many? How Much? Evidence Of Convergent Validity Among Thin-Slice Behavioral Coding Metrics, Nora Murphy, Mollie A. Ruben, Morgan Stosic, Laetitia A. Renier, Katja Schlegel, Judith A. Hall, Marianne Schmid Mast, Brett Marroquín Jan 2025

How Long? How Many? How Much? Evidence Of Convergent Validity Among Thin-Slice Behavioral Coding Metrics, Nora Murphy, Mollie A. Ruben, Morgan Stosic, Laetitia A. Renier, Katja Schlegel, Judith A. Hall, Marianne Schmid Mast, Brett Marroquín

Psychological Science Faculty Works

Despite the ubiquity of thin-slice coding for behavioral measurement, there exists relatively little systematic research into the convergent validity of thin-slice coding metrics for nonverbal behaviors when using human coders. This study utilized five previous datasets to measure four commonly-measured nonverbal behaviors (gaze, gestures, nods, smiles) using three different coding metrics (duration, frequency, rating) coded in 2 or 3 min slices. Convergent validity was measured by comparing a given behavior coded with at least two different metrics. Meta-analytic assessments across studies, behaviors, and metrics indicated strong convergent validity for various metrics for each behavior. Results provide confidence to researchers on …


Patient-Clinician Discussions On Lung Cancer Screening In The United States Before And After 2021 Guidelines, Timothy J. Williamson Phd, Mph, Whitney M. Brymwitt Ma, Mckenzie T. Reese, Erin A. Hirsch, Lisa Carter-Bawa Jan 2025

Patient-Clinician Discussions On Lung Cancer Screening In The United States Before And After 2021 Guidelines, Timothy J. Williamson Phd, Mph, Whitney M. Brymwitt Ma, Mckenzie T. Reese, Erin A. Hirsch, Lisa Carter-Bawa

Psychological Science Faculty Works

Background Screening for lung cancer via low-dose computed tomography of the chest can promote early detection and reduce mortality. However, since the United States Preventive Service Task Force (USPSTF) issued lung cancer screening guidelines in 2013, uptake has been low. The USPSTF revised the guidelines in 2021 to expand eligibility. Purpose To determine whether patient-clinician discussions about lung cancer screening differs from 2017 to 2022 following 2021 revisions to the guidelines for lung cancer screening. Methods Data were obtained from the Health Information National Trends Survey (2017, 2020, and 2022). Community-dwelling US adults (N = 2973) were in the eligible …


The Longitudinal Effects Of Parent–Adolescent Digital Communication On Depression And Anxiety Symptoms, Bradley M. Trager Ph.D., Layla M. Rainosek, Ina M. Koning Ph.D., Suzanne M. Geurts Ph.D., Regina Jjm Van Den Eijden Ph.D., Helen Gm Vossen Ph.D. Jan 2025

The Longitudinal Effects Of Parent–Adolescent Digital Communication On Depression And Anxiety Symptoms, Bradley M. Trager Ph.D., Layla M. Rainosek, Ina M. Koning Ph.D., Suzanne M. Geurts Ph.D., Regina Jjm Van Den Eijden Ph.D., Helen Gm Vossen Ph.D.

Psychological Science Faculty Works

Purpose: Digital communication between parents and adolescents is prevalent. This study explored the overall frequency of digital communication and frequency of exchanging specific content between parents and adolescents as predictors of adolescents' depression and anxiety symptoms. Methods: Participants were 188 mother–adolescent and 137 father–adolescent dyads from the Netherlands. Parents (mothers/fathers: Mage = 46.17 of 48.55) and adolescents (Mage = 13.88) each completed 2 surveys 1 year apart. Results: Results from the study suggest that the nature of the digital communication content rather than its overall frequency plays a crucial role in adolescents' mental health outcomes. Sharing personal experiences with mothers …


The Puzzle Of Political Ambition And Prosociality, Jennifer Pate, Alessandra Cassar, Mary L. Rigdon Jan 2025

The Puzzle Of Political Ambition And Prosociality, Jennifer Pate, Alessandra Cassar, Mary L. Rigdon

Economics Faculty Works

This study explores the effect of prosocial interventions on political engagement, particularly whether a prosocial, redistributive option can narrow the gender gap in willingness to enter elections (Pate and Fox, 2018). Previous evidence suggests that prosocial incentives boost women’s desire to compete (Cassar and Rigdon, 2021a,b). Building on this, our research investigates whether mechanisms that enable elected leaders to share their gains can increase women’s political ambition. We conducted a laboratory experiment at two distinct laboratories with 320 participants using a within-subjects design to compare a standard election with one where the elected leader could redistribute earnings to the lowest …


Negotiating Power Relationships In Interprofessional Health Care Groups, Allison L. Noyes Jan 2025

Negotiating Power Relationships In Interprofessional Health Care Groups, Allison L. Noyes

Communication Studies Faculty Works

This chapter examines the communication challenges associated with the hierarchical structure of power relationships among the health professions. It is commonly believed that balancing power relationships is crucial for successful interprofessional collaboration in providing patient care, but because hierarchy is deeply embedded in healthcare organizations, balancing power among health professionals may be an unrealistic ideal. This chapter therefore reframes thinking about professional hierarchy-from a monolithic absolute to a flexible and negotiable social order that can serve multiple purposes at different points in the patient care process. It proposes a communicative framework of interprofessional hierarchy negotiation that can help us to …


Post-Pandemic Recovery: Search And Matching, Market Power, And Endogenous Labor Demand, Konstantin Platonov Jan 2025

Post-Pandemic Recovery: Search And Matching, Market Power, And Endogenous Labor Demand, Konstantin Platonov

Economics Faculty Works

Following the COVID-19 pandemic, United States (US) output rebounded quickly, labor productivity rose above pre-pandemic levels, profit rates increased, and the labor market tightened, all despite high unemployment. These observations can be reconciled in a search and matching model of the labor market with two new assumptions of strong firm market power and endogenous labor demand. Market power encourages firm entry when prices rise, while endogenous labor demand enables firms to adapt to shocks rather than shut down. Two regimes arise: one with weak market power, representing the pre-pandemic era and another with strong market power, explaining the post-pandemic recovery. …


Hunting And Fishing Ceos: Environmental Plunderers Or Saviors?, Thomas Covington, Steve Widler, Keven Yost Jan 2025

Hunting And Fishing Ceos: Environmental Plunderers Or Saviors?, Thomas Covington, Steve Widler, Keven Yost

Finance Faculty Works

CEOs who participate in hunting and fishing benefit by appreciating natural environments and permanently consuming natural resources. We examine whether CEOs who hunt and fish make different environmental decisions and find that firms led by CEOs who obtain the most hunting and fishing licenses have lower environmental performance as measured by MSCI-KLD. This effect is strongest in the environmental category of climate change but also extends to pollution, waste, and the protection of natural capital. Furthermore, firms led by CEOs with the most hunting and fishing licenses are significantly more likely to pay a regulatory settlement for an environmental regulatory …


Disengaged And Drowsy: Using An Adaptive System To Detect Suboptimal Learning, William Andrew Stalker Jan 2025

Disengaged And Drowsy: Using An Adaptive System To Detect Suboptimal Learning, William Andrew Stalker

Browse all Theses and Dissertations

Instruction is increasingly asynchronous, providing new opportunities but at the cost of losing some guard rails of in-person classes. One such guard rail is an instructor’s ability to detect boredom and learner disengagement. This dissertation explores the development and evaluation of an adaptive training simulator designed to respond to user engagement levels in real-time. The simulator monitors eyeblinks, comparing metrics to individual baselines to detect signs of fatigue and boredom. Participants are exposed to novel information in an audiobook recording of a textbook chapter and later quizzed to assess retention. An adaptive intervention offering periodic brief respite was tested against …


Religiosity And The Gender Violence Crisis: How Religious Affiliation Of Society Impacts Violence Against Women, Sydney Hoffman Jan 2025

Religiosity And The Gender Violence Crisis: How Religious Affiliation Of Society Impacts Violence Against Women, Sydney Hoffman

Browse all Theses and Dissertations

This thesis analyzes the impact that the religious affiliation of a population has on both the prevalence of violence against women, as well as the presence of legislation and other legal frameworks aimed at preventing violence and protecting women. Utilizing data from international organizations and nonpartisan fact tanks, regression analyses are performed with four different models and dependent variables to understand the effect religiosity has on both prevalence and prevention of gender violence. While the results of these models do not indicate a likelihood of real relationships between religiosity and the different outcomes, the thesis overall contributes further to the …


Diverse Environments: Refining The Concept Of Remote Work Through A Job Demands-Resources Lens, Riley Schwanz Jan 2025

Diverse Environments: Refining The Concept Of Remote Work Through A Job Demands-Resources Lens, Riley Schwanz

Browse all Theses and Dissertations

Global events such as globalization, technological advancements, and fundamentally new methods for completing work are contributing factors to the mass migration of employees from in-person to more remote work modalities. Researchers have found evidence for advantages (e.g., autonomy) and disadvantages (i.e., lack of teamwork) for employees in more remote modalities. However, there are critical gaps in the literature including a lack of clear definitions, assessments, taxonomies, and application of well-established theories. Beyond focusing on the physical aspects of remote work, I proposed a new concept, degree of remoteness, to capture the psychological experience of working remotely. Further, I proposed that …


Ready, Set, Resistance: A Dual Continuum Approach To Organizational Change Acceptance, Alexandria Bohn Jan 2025

Ready, Set, Resistance: A Dual Continuum Approach To Organizational Change Acceptance, Alexandria Bohn

Browse all Theses and Dissertations

With organizations operating in increasingly dynamic and competitive landscapes, organizations need to be able to get their employees to adapt to system-wide changes that are needed. However, research has suggested a 70% failure rate for organizational change initiatives (Hughes, 2011). Prior research has produced mixed research results when examining resistance and readiness to organizational change on either a single dimension (e.g., Kaplan, 1972) or two dimensions (e.g., Repovs, Drnovsek, & Kase, 2019). I extended prior research by examining resistance versus readiness as residing on a single continuum and whether effects on outcomes were moderated by change orientations. Research has suggested …


Complainer's Dilemma, Greg Leo, Jennifer Pate Jan 2025

Complainer's Dilemma, Greg Leo, Jennifer Pate

Economics Faculty Works

Technological innovations have made complaining easier. Often, when it is easy to complain, only problems that meet a high threshold of complaints are addressed. We present a novel model of the strategic environment facing complainers and demonstrate that the properties of the resulting games' equilibria justify the existence of high complaint thresholds. By setting the thresholds appropriately, an administrator can prevent complaints that are not worth addressing. Policies that minimize the cost of complaining while requiring a large threshold are universally more efficient for large constituencies. Our results regarding the equilibrium for large constituencies are facilitated by the application of …


Voter Apathy And Divided Government, Ty'hier Simon Jan 2025

Voter Apathy And Divided Government, Ty'hier Simon

Williams Honors College, Honors Research Projects

The proposed research project will pertain to the voter attitudes associated with our government. The association with our government is critical to document because it may reflect the outlook of how the seats are distributed between the two major parties in our system. Voter apathy is the lack of interest in elections of representative democracies. In this project, a correlation may be drawn between voter turnout and how the delegation of our representatives looks. For example, if there is a low voter turnout there may be a swift change in power in Congress or there might be total gridlock. Using …


Soc 37 Syllabus, Gilbert Marzan Jan 2025

Soc 37 Syllabus, Gilbert Marzan

Open Educational Resources

The SOC 37 syllabus contains a course description, learning objectives, course readings divided by week and a link to the course's OER textbook.


Decolonizing The Pedagogy Of Development Studies In Selected Universities In The Philippines, Leslie Advincula-Lopez, Nota F. Magno, Maria Victoria F. Punay Jan 2025

Decolonizing The Pedagogy Of Development Studies In Selected Universities In The Philippines, Leslie Advincula-Lopez, Nota F. Magno, Maria Victoria F. Punay

Development Studies Faculty Publications

It has been forty-two (42) years since the first cohort of Development Studies majors graduated from the University of the Philippines Manila Campus. Today, two (2) other universities in Metro Manila are offering undergraduate courses on Development Studies. Kapoor (2023) discusses criticisms of Development Studies and refers to arguments that the discipline is (neo)colonial and carries the baggage of imperial plunder. In the same article, she also refers to observations that the discipline has persistently sanitized colonialism and suffers from “imperialist amnesia.” Since this program aims to mold and train development professionals in the Philippines, we engage in this reflexive …