Cognitive Dissonance,
2025
Ludwig-Maximilian-Universität
Cognitive Dissonance, Afton Nelson, Eric A. Goedereis
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Leon Festinger proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance in 1957, in which he extensively outlined the major derivations of dissonance, consonance, and justification (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959). In short, cognitive dissonance occurs when one’s actions are inconsistent with previous beliefs about one’s self. The inconsistency in these beliefs creates conflict within the self. For example, an individual may think of herself as a good person, yet she breaks a law. In this example, there is inconsistency between one’s current action and prior beliefs about the self.
Memory Strategies,
2025
Idaho State University
Memory Strategies, Tina M. Miyake, Erika K. Fulton
Essays in Developmental Psychology
If questioned, we can all probably describe a strategy we employed to try to remember relevant information (e.g., I rehearsed the definitions, I generated examples of the definitions) for some future event (e.g., a test). Essentially, memory strategies help manage encoding and retrieval demands given a particular memory task. In the example of a test, we must figure out how to remember all the material covered on the test. This task requires that our studying allow us to discriminate the information at test. Famous psychologist, Endel Tulving, demonstrated the Encoding Specificity Principle that posits that the more similar the retrieval …
John B. Watson,
2025
Ludwig-Maximilian-Universitat
John B. Watson, Afton Nelson, Amanda Kracen
Essays in Developmental Psychology
John B. Watson (1878 – 1958) was an influential American psychologist credited with advancing behaviorism, a psychological approach that considers all behavior to be a result of interactions with the external environment. Watson was born in South Carolina on January 9, 1878, where he lived throughout his childhood. Despite his rebellious adolescent years and poor academic performance, he graduated with a master’s degree from Furman University in South Carolina at the age of 21. He earned a Ph.D. in psychology in 1903 from the University of Chicago, where he studied animal behaviors for his doctoral dissertation. In 1908, Watson accepted …
Ethical Research,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Ethical Research, Stephanie Nguyen, Aya Shigeto
Essays in Developmental Psychology
In the early history of empirical research, the ethical code of conduct was only loosely followed and not well regulated. Now, following a proper code of ethics is expected in research with committees from the institutional to the international level strictly regulating and holding researchers accountable for their work. Research ethics address questions, such as whether a study will produce the greatest good; who is intended to benefit from a study at the expense of others; and how research participants, especially those from vulnerable populations (e.g., pregnant women; minors; people in impoverished circumstances, with disabilities, or from minority groups), should …
Psychological Development During Childhood,
2025
Troy University
Psychological Development During Childhood, Meg Milligan, Kanessa Miller Doss, Sherrionda H. Crawford
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Childhood is a time of tremendous psychological development. Our personalities, cognitive capabilities, and emotions expand and transform us from infants to adolescents. In some ways we exhibit continuous development, while others are more accurately described as stages. The following pages present some of these significant changes that occur during early and middle childhood.
Piaget's Conservation Experiments,
2025
University of Cincinnati
Piaget's Conservation Experiments, Motolani Shenbanjo, Heidi Kloos
Essays in Developmental Psychology
When it comes to assessing the magnitude of a quantity, the mind has several options. For example, to determine the amount of juice in a glass, one could merely look at the height of the juice in the glass; or one could incorporate both the height and the width of the glass. The latter would be the correct approach: The height alone can be misleading, for example when the glass is very narrow. Thus, in order to behave rationally, one has to look past the salient dimension of height and instead focus on integrating several dimensions. According to Jean Piaget, …
Job Satisfaction (Motivation / Work / Employee / Satisfaction),
2025
Westhampton Beach High School, Long Island
Job Satisfaction (Motivation / Work / Employee / Satisfaction), Veronica Stelzer, Jonathan Proctor
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Satisfaction is a multifaceted emotional state of being that is derived from the fulfillment of expectations, wants, and needs. Reaching a level of satisfactory creates contentment, pleasure and even pride, but in order to achieve this state of well-being the task must be reasonably challenging, purposeful and appreciated. Today, job satisfaction is a topic that interests many. Satisfaction surveys are completed yearly, if not quarterly, to assure employees are feeling heard and understood. Some businesses such as Facebook and American Express have employee satisfaction ratings that top the charts, other places of work, suffer from high turnover rates and lack …
Stereotype Thinking,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Stereotype Thinking, Lisa Stebbins, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Stereotypes are widely held fixed thoughts and beliefs adopted by common members of a group, that represent a particular group of individuals or behaviors as a whole. Attitudes people hold reflect in-group beliefs, values, and everyday life choices that are transgressed throughout multiple generations. Stereotypes are intertwined into society, and although many people would like to deny these attitudes, they are implanted on individuals when we are young and occur without conscious awareness. Stereotype thinking is adaptive in nature, which serves the purpose to help people make sense of the world around them, by explaining social events, justifying one’s actions, …
Harry Harlow’S Nature Of Love (1958),
2025
University of Nebraska at Omaha
Harry Harlow’S Nature Of Love (1958), Jonathan B. Santo
Essays in Developmental Psychology
In Harold Harlow’s 1958 address of the American Psychological Association, he hoped to tackle a concept he felt was too often avoided by the psychologists of his time, the nature of love. His work on the behavior of macaques when reared without their mothers makes a compelling argument about the limits of viewing psychology (and by extension development) as simply the reduction of “primary drives” like hunger, thirst and avoidance of pain.
Intelligence In Adulthood,
2025
Central Michigan University
Intelligence In Adulthood, Shehroo B. Pudumjee, Nathan C. Weed
Essays in Developmental Psychology
The construct of intelligence has been extensively debated and ascribed many definitions. A typical example, provided by David Wechsler, defines intelligence as “the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with [one’s] environment.” While most intelligence theorists agree upon the existence of a “general intelligence” (often symbolized g), and agree upon the existence of narrower abilities, there is a great deal of disagreement about the nature and number of the narrower abilities. For example, Cattell proposed a model including crystallized intelligence, the ability to employ acquired skills and knowledge, and …
Muhammad Ibn Zakariya Razi,
2025
University of Nebraska at Omaha
Muhammad Ibn Zakariya Razi, Mithra H. Pirooz, Jonathan B. Santo
Essays in Developmental Psychology
A Persian physician, alchemist, philosopher, and polymath, Muhammad ibn Zakariya Razi was born near current-day Tehran, Iran in 854 CE and died in around 925 CE. Credited with more than 200 manuscripts, he contributed to numerous disciplines and is still celebrated to this day.
Job Dissatisfaction,
2025
Clemson University
Job Dissatisfaction, David A. Scott, Dawn-Marie Farrell-Smith, Angela Garren, Hannah Wegley
Essays in Developmental Psychology
We either have experienced or know someone who has experienced job dissatisfaction at some point in their life. Many factors can lead to job dissatisfaction, including horrible mangers, poor working conditions, irritating co-workers and even harassment. Job dissatisfaction is very common and can have an impact on a person’s overall health and relationships. Job dissatisfaction can also lead to people changing careers several times over their lifetime. A person would be considered very lucky to have a job they enjoy going to each and every day.
Love (Components),
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Love (Components), Zahra Sattaur, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Several theories have emerged over the years to explain love. These theories have emerged in order to understand the nature of one’s experience of love in daily life. The two dominating theories on love are those proposed by John Alan Lee and Robert Sternberg. Lee’s model suggested a model which includes six styles of love, three which are primary, and three that are considered secondary. The primary styles of love are Eros or passionate love, Ludus or game-playing love, and Storge which is friendship-based love. The secondary styles of love are Pragma or practical love, Mania which is possessive love, …
Play And Gender,
2025
University of Nebraska at Omaha
Play And Gender, Mithra H. Pirooz, Jonathan B. Santo
Essays in Developmental Psychology
While children vary greatly in their play preferences, research has shown that gender differences in play tend to emerge fairly young. These gender differences may be influenced by a variety of sources. Parents, peers, teachers, and media all impact on children’s play. Such gender differences have been documented in North American and European countries, including those that are fairly gender-egalitarian, including Sweden.
Unemployment,
2025
Clemson University
Unemployment, David A. Scott, Caroline Sumner, Taylor Roberson, Rachel Edwards
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Unemployment is a difficulty that millions of Americans face on a yearly basis. Unemployment is a multifaceted concern that impacts the individual, including their financial security, their family, and the larger community systems. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reported the unemployment rate at 4.1% in 2017, which is the lowest unemployment rate since 2000. Based on the BLS’s 2016 statistics, African Americans suffer with the highest unemployment rates, followed by Hispanics, Whites, and lastly, Asians. However, statistics only tell part of the story. According to the BLS, unemployment is classified as “people who are jobless, are actively seeking work …
Wear And Tear Theory Of Aging,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Wear And Tear Theory Of Aging, Zahra Sattaur, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
The wear and tear theory of aging is an idea proposed by German biologist, Dr. August Wiesmann, in 1882. The theory suggests that aging results from a gradual deterioration of the cells and tissues of the body via wear and tear, oxidative stress, exposure to radiation, toxins, or other deteriorative processes. It suggests that living organisms “wear out” over time with repeated use and increased stress on the body. This concept is similar to the idea that objects such as automobiles deteriorate or wear out as they are used repeatedly over time. Because people observe the wear and tear on …
Infant Speech Perception And Babbling,
2025
Bluegrass Community and Technical College
Infant Speech Perception And Babbling, Brian Schanding
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Much work in the study of early life speech perception centers on an infant’s ability to discriminate sounds. Studies rely on an infant’s reactions to spoken language, measured by various physical and biometric responses, as evidence of an infant’s ability to perceive distinct spoken sounds. Studies have identified a number of characteristics of human speech, termed cues, which infants have demonstrated they can recognize.
Charles Darwin,
2025
Omaha Virtual School
Charles Darwin, Michaela J. Santo, Jonathan B. Santo
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Charles Robert Darwin was born February 12th, 1809 in Shropshire England, the fifth child of six to Robert and Susannah Darwin. Although Darwin is best known for his work as a naturalist, he had an early interest in medicine working with his father treating the poor in the village of his birth. Though he enrolled in medical school, he found the study of taxidermy more engaging than his medical studies. His interest soon shifted towards natural history, to the cataloging of beetles and eventually geology. He subsequently dropped the pursuit of medicine to finishing his coursework to become an Anglican …
Parenting Dimensions,
2025
University of California, Riverside
Parenting Dimensions, Pamela C. Sheffler, Ceclia S. Cheung
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Parenting is the process of supporting the development of a child from infancy through adulthood. This support encompasses not only the child’s physical development, but his or her social, emotional, and financial development as well. Although children are most often raised by their biological parents, parenting refers to a process that is separate from its biological definition. Thus, siblings, grandparents, and legal guardians may also parent. For example, in the Kipsigis community of Kenya, after a child reaches the age of two it is common practice for older siblings to take on the role of parent while the mother is …
Temperament,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Temperament, Aya Shigeto
Essays in Developmental Psychology
John Locke, an English philosopher, stated that all babies come to the world with a blank slate or tabula rasa, ready to absorb everything that their outside world has to offer. Behaviorists like John B. Watson similarly advocated the power of nurture (i.e., learning) and disregarded the contribution of nature (i.e., biology, genetics) to human development. Researchers today agree that babies are born with unique characteristics called temperament and that these individual differences in behavior, affect, and attention are believed to have genetic and biological bases. However, researchers also agree that temperament is not immune to environmental influences. In other …
