Love,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Love, Kelsey Grodner, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Many have sought to understand the mystifying concept of love including psychologists, philosophers, and theologians. Most research on love focuses on the early bonding between a mother and her infant, and uses this as the exemplar for how any love relationship is formed and maintained throughout the life span. Early in development, the first understanding of love is gathered through the warm connections, nurture and affection experienced through the interaction between the child and parents or caregivers. Many theorists have suggested that the type and success of this early interaction informs how future emotional bonds and relationships are molded throughout …
Social Exchange Theory,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Social Exchange Theory, William Goulart, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Exchange theory originated in the field of sociology in the 1920s. However, since the late 1950s and early 1960s, social exchange theory has been a major school of thought in the field of both social psychology and sociology. This is largely due to the work of George Homans, John Thibaut, Harold Kelley, and Peter Blau. Social exchange theory describes all human interactions as a series of trades or exchanges of rewards between actors.
Lifespan Construct,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Lifespan Construct, Meghan Gilmore, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Susan K. Whitbourne’s (1985) lifespan construct derives from her identity theory. Lifespan construct is a combined sense of past, present, and future events that are connected by their common occurrence to the individual. Cognitive-affective schemata are part of building this construct and shape the way adults approach identity-discrepant experiences. Cognition is the organizer of the experiences, and all events are measured against these experiences. The affective aspect is the individual’s evaluation of events that lead to positive or negative feeling-states.
Carl R. Rogers: Person Centered Therapy, Learner Centered Facilitation, Humanistic Education,
2025
Missouri State University
Carl R. Rogers: Person Centered Therapy, Learner Centered Facilitation, Humanistic Education, Jeffrey H.D. Cornelius-White
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Carl Rogers (January 8, 1902- February 4, 1987) was born and grew up in Oak Park, Illinois, near Chicago. He is one of the few American psychologists to be considered giants in the field, and his American spirit can be traced to ancestors in the USA since the 1600s. He was the fourth of six children in a devout conservative Christian family who prayed together in a circle each morning. He learned to read before Kindergarten and read extensively. As a child, he was shy and kept sheltered by his family, and did not have close friends. He became very …
Daniel Levinson,
2025
Troy University
Daniel Levinson, Gulnara Mccullough, Trey Fitch
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Daniel Levinson was a psychologist and researcher at Harvard and Yale Universities where he became a prominent figure in the area of developmental psychology. He was born in New York City in 1920 and died in 1994. His work expanded the ideas from Erik Erikson and the stage model concept for human development. Levinson was particularly focused on adult development along with the related stages and points of transition. His book Seasons of a Man’s Life (1978), based on extensive interviews with adults, was extremely influential in the area of developmental psychology. The concepts of midlife transitions and midlife conflict …
Student Motivation - Traditional Vs. Nontraditional College Students,
2025
University of Cincinnati
Student Motivation - Traditional Vs. Nontraditional College Students, Marcus Lee Johnson
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Traditional-aged college undergraduate students are typically between the ages of 18 and 23 years and pursue their college education immediately after graduating from high school. Nontraditional undergraduate students tend to be older than 24 years in age or have taken time off from pursuing higher education. Many nontraditional students have reported having parental responsibilities, mortgages, or career responsibilities. Despite these perceived challenges, the nontraditional student population has tripled in size since the 1970’s and is projected to continue growing steadily in the coming years.
Heredity,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Heredity, Chris Burley, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Heredity is the sum of biological processes that result in the transmission of genetic traits from parents to their offspring, making each individual unique. Through the transmission of genetic traits, heredity is responsible for each individual’s genotype, as well as his or her phenotype. The genes that are passed down from generation to generation have a considerable influence on psychological characteristics including intelligence, personality, mental health, and patterns of behavior. However, when considering psychological characteristics passed down through heredity, it is vital that environmental aspects are also considered.
Life Review,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Life Review, Chris Burley, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
In traditional societies, storytelling was an art used to help understand the meaning of life. Storytellers typically included older adults who had experienced challenges in their lives and were aiming to help the young learn from them. This tradition of storytelling not only facilitated the transmission of valuable information between generations, but it also improved the elderly’s social status. One of the many changes associated with modernized society has been placing a larger focus on youth, allowing the elderly to be marginalized within society. As a byproduct of the focus on youth in modern society, older adults have collectively experienced …
Kenneth B. Clark,
2025
Marquette University
Kenneth B. Clark, Kalen Kennedy, Simon Howard
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Kenneth B. Clark (born July 14, 1914, unincorporated territory of the Panama Canal Zone – May 1, 2005, Hastings-on-Hudson, New York) was an American experimental psychologist best known for his work on understanding the development of African American children’s sense of self, specifically through a series of studies known as the “doll tests”.
Widowhood,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Widowhood, Kirsten Horne, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Widowhood is defined as the state or period of being a widow or widower. A widow is a female whose spouse has died, while a widower is a male whose spouse has died. Although both men and women are likely to experience widowhood, research indicates that women are more likely to be widowed than men. Research suggests there are two main reasons why women are more likely to be widowed. First, women in average live longer than men. The second reason consists of the idea that women tend to marry older men. (Now that the USA and many other countries …
Mental Models: How Children Learn The Earth Isn’T Flat,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Mental Models: How Children Learn The Earth Isn’T Flat, Leila Hosseini, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Researchers in the area of child psychology have taken an interest in how children revise their understanding of the world. Stella Vosniadou and William Brewer (1991) postulated a theory called mental models, which provides insight into how genuine understanding is attained. The postulated mental models are created and then tested to build up one’s understanding of how the world works. Additionally, this theory implies there may be points in time where there is some understanding of a concept, yet it is still incomplete. Vosniadou and Brewer wanted to explore these intermediate mental models and develop evidence of understanding in progress.
Abraham Low,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Abraham Low, Jason Jimenez, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Dr. Abraham Low (1891–1954) was a Jewish-American psychiatrist and a pioneer in the treatment of mental disorders through self-help programs. He is known for founding Recovery, Inc., a self-help organization that is designed, in part, to fight against the stigma of mental illness. Dr. Low criticized the work of Freud, rejecting the psychoanalytic doctrine both as a therapeutic technique and ideology. He affirmed his belief that human conduct is not a result of unconscious drives but rather directed by personal will.
Social Groups And Development,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Social Groups And Development, Jason Jimenez, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Children spend an increasing amount of time in social groups as they age. Preschoolers begin to interact with their peers around playsets, though at this stage, these early social groups are loosely organized. It is not until they reach school age that children begin to feel as true members of a peer group. A peer group interacts on a regular basis, provides a sense of belonging, has implicit or explicit norms, and has a hierarchical order. Within these groups, social status becomes important, with some members being more popular and having a greater social impact than others.
Social Rejection,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Social Rejection, Jason Jimenez, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
People conform to gain social acceptance and avoid rejection. It is believed that people carry a strong, instinctive need to form social bonds and avoid the consequences of rejection. Even individuals who prefer to be alone still tend to have a few close friends. Rejection is one of the main obstacles faced by many individuals in their attempts to fulfill this need. Being rejected by social groups can be distressing to the individual, as the consequences of rejection can be catastrophic. However, those who feel rejected can also behave in a manner that can either strengthen their remaining social bonds …
The Doll Studies", Kenneth B. Clark And Mamie P. Clark, 1947",
2025
Marquette University
The Doll Studies", Kenneth B. Clark And Mamie P. Clark, 1947", Simon Howard, Kalen Kennedy
Essays in Developmental Psychology
The experiments colloquially known as the “doll studies” were a series of studies performed by Mamie P. Clark and her husband Kenneth B. Clark in the 1940’s. The purpose of the experiments was to explore how African-American children developed a sense of self. Additionally, the Clarks were interested in Black children’s racial preferences and self-esteem. In these studies, the Clarks used four diaper-clad dolls that were identical in every respect, with one exception: Two of the dolls were Black and the other two were White. These dolls were displayed before Black children between the ages of 3 and 7 while …
Forms Of Parenting,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Forms Of Parenting, Jason Jimenez, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Parenting styles represent the different strategies that parents use when raising their children. Clinical and developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind believed there were two basic dimensions to parenting: warmth and control. Baumrind identified three parenting styles: Authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive styles based on these two dimensions. Her work was later expanded by Maccoby and Martin to include neglectful parenting.
The Missing Child Experiment,
2025
Georgia State University
The Missing Child Experiment, Philip J. Hudson, Michelle P. D'Amico, Betty S. Lai
Essays in Developmental Psychology
“The missing child experiment” refers to a popular, non-academic, social experiment that was first conducted in 2008 by a Local 6, a news station in Orlando, Florida. The “experiment” has since been replicated and adapted in popular culture and by psychological researchers. In the “experiment,” the news crew arranged for a child actor to sit on a bench inside the entrance of a local shopping mall. Mock missing child posters featuring the child actor’s face were posted at the mall’s entrance. The child was observed by the news crew and security personnel, with her father seated in a nearby café …
Adolescent Alcohol Use,
2025
University of Bath
Adolescent Alcohol Use, Maike Klein
Essays in Developmental Psychology
To this day, Alcohol poses a danger that literature defines as “the world's third largest contributor to disease” (Marshall, 2014). According to the World Health Organization, nearly 2.5 million deaths are caused by alcohol, with rising prevalence among adolescents (WHO, 2014). Alcohol consumption and misuse in adolescents continues to be a national health issue in the United States (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA], 2013). In-depth reports for one month indicated underaged drinking to stand at almost 30% (SAMHSA, 2013). A recent study about ongoing drug use among high school students found an alcohol consumption level of almost …
Adolescent Drug Use,
2025
University of Bath
Adolescent Drug Use, Maike Klein
Essays in Developmental Psychology
The adolescence stage of life is a critical period for increased risk behaviors such as use of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drugs (Chen & Jacobson, 2012), unprotected sex and sexually transmitted infections (Center for Disease Control, 2014) as well as violent and nonviolent crimes (Pastore & Maguire, 2006; Collado, MacPherson, Kurdziel, Rosenberg, & Lejuez, 2014). Drug misuse during adolescence continues to be a problem in the United States. Mitchell et. al. (2014) illuminate the epidemical forces of drug use by reviewing data of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), showing that 1 in 10 adolescents from ages …
Singlehood,
2025
Nova Southeastern University
Singlehood, Molly B. Keith, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden
Essays in Developmental Psychology
Singlehood is defined as a state of being unmarried, either with or without a partner. For some singlehood is a choice to remain unmarried as an adult, or it can be a stage that is passed through temporarily when a spouse dies, or even when an adult is between partners. Singlehood is experienced differently depending on which of those groups a person finds themselves in or chooses to be part of. The experience is also varied by a person’s cultural and ethnic heritage. People in both the married group and the unmarried group are able to identify benefits and drawbacks …
