Psychology Commons^™

Distinguishing Primary And Secondary Anomalous Self-Experience Using Momentary Variability, Michael D. Masucci

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

Schizophrenia is associated with significant decreases in functioning and costly psychiatric hospitalization. However, it is frequently misdiagnosed due to phenotypic overlap with other disorders, and misdiagnosis can contribute to its functional and economic cost. Schizotypy and psychosis risk syndrome frameworks have been used to predict who will eventually develop schizophrenic psychosis, but accurate prediction caps at about 30% for individuals who are identified as “at risk” by these frameworks. Anomalous Self Experience (ASE), an alternative framework for understanding psychosis risk developed by phenomenological psychiatry, proposes that identifying fundamental alterations to sense of self are specific to schizophrenia and distinguish those …

Spotting And Preventing Air Rage: Proactive Strategies For Pilots & Flight Attendants For Handling Unruly Passenger Behavior, Alan Saquella, Joe Frary

Publications

Unruly passenger behavior has become an increasingly common challenge for airline crews. According to the International Air Transport Association (IATA), more than 53,500 disruptive passenger incidents were reported globally in 2024, averaging one incident every 395 flights. In the U.S., the FAA recorded over 900 cases by mid-year, with more than 100 directly tied to intoxication. While the majority of flights operate without issue, the rise in verbal abuse, intimidation, and physical altercations is impacting both safety and morale in the skies.

Facilitating Novice Learning In Visual Search: Baseline-Dependent Effects Of Transcranial Electrical Stimulation Over The Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus, Bradley M. Robert

Psychology ETDs

Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) has shown potential to modulate attention and enhance learning, yet its effects in applied, real-world contexts, remains underexplored. This study investigated the impact of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and high-frequency transcranial random noise stimulation (hf-tRNS with DC offset) on performance in a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) visual search task requiring both target identification and change detection. Participants (N = 63) were randomly assigned to tDCS, hf-tRNS, or sham conditions, with stimulation applied to the right inferior frontal gyrus (F10) during the training phase. Accuracy served as the primary outcome, with supplementary EEG and eye-tracking data …

Factor Analysis Of The Cultivated Leadership Questionnaire (Clq) And Measurement Against The Short Dark Triad (Sd3), Christopher Ewing, Michael Epstein

The Journal of Values-Based Leadership

This study aimed to evaluate the Cultivated Leadership Questionnaire (CLQ), a self-report tool designed to assess leadership based on key constructs such as self-regulatory behaviors, emotional intelligence, prosocial actions, positive motivational strategies, and personal influence. An exploratory factor analysis identified two main components that together accounted for 65.44% of the variance, suggesting a general leadership factor and a secondary factor capturing more specific leadership attributes. The study also examined the relationship between Dark Triad traits—psychopathy, narcissism, and Machiavellianism—and the leadership behaviors measured by the CLQ. The results revealed negative correlations between both Machiavellianism and psychopathy with leadership behaviors, while narcissism …

Autism And Down Syndrome: An Examination Of The Baby And Infant Screen For Autism Traits In Toddlers With Down Syndrome, Celeste Tevis

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

Current research suggests that children with Down Syndrome (DS) are at an increased risk for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) compared to the general population. Detecting ASD early in children with DS is crucial to providing access to additional treatment services and supports that may be necessary. Despite a critical need to identify ASD as early as possible, diagnoses of ASD are often delayed in individuals with DS. It can be especially difficult for clinicians to differentiate between symptoms attributed to intellectual developmental disorder (IDD), a primary feature of DS, and possible ASD symptoms. Only two research studies have evaluated the …

Differences In Children’S Food And Beverage Consumption Between School And Summer: Three-Year Findings From The What’S Up (Undermining Prevention) With Summer Observational Cohort Study, Michael Beets Med, Mph, Phd, Sarah Burkart, Christopher D. Pfledderer, Elizabeth L. Adams Phd, Robert Weaver Med, Phd, Bridget Armstrong, Keith Brazendale, Xuanxuan Zhu, Alexander Mclain, Gabrielle Turner-Mcgrievy Ph.D., Rd, Russell R. Pate, Andrew T. Kaczynski, Amanda Fairchild, Brian Saelens, Hannah Parker, Amy L. Yaroch, Emily Eglitis, Anthony J. Holmes

Faculty Publications

Background

Summer vacation is a time when youth gain excessive weight. A key driver of unhealthy weight gain is poor dietary quality. The absence of consistent structure (e.g., school), is hypothesized to be one of the reasons for lower diet quality during summer. This study examined differences in school and summer dietary quality among a diverse cohort of children across three years. We also examined the impact of attending structured programs on children’s diets.

Methods

Parents of 1,032 children (age 5–14 years, 48% girls) completed a time use diary each day for 14-days during school (April/May) and again in summer …

Longitudinal Sequencing Of Cardiometabolic Multimorbidity Among Older Adults And Association With Subsequent Dementia Onset, Corey L. Nagel, Siting Chen, Heather G. Allore, Anda Botoseneanu, Jason T. Newsom, Nick Bishop, David A. Dorr, Jeffrey Kaye, Ana R. Quiñones

Psychology Faculty Publications and Presentations

Patterns of development of cardiometabolic multimorbidity (CMM) and the impact of specific cardiometabolic disease combinations on cognitive function are not well understood. This study utilizes sequence analysis to describe the ordering and timing of cardiometabolic disease accumulation over a five-year period and to assess both sociodemographic predictors and cognitive outcomes of typical cardiometabolic disease sequences.

Parents Of Adolescents On Electronic Use And Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Parental Perspectives, Sleep, Internalization, Jessica Wiepking

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

ADHD in adolescents is a common diagnosis, with exposure to daily electronic use. There is strong evidence for a relationship between electronic use and ADHD in adolescents. However, there is a gap on electronic use, internalized feelings, and sleep behaviors in ADHD adolescents and how sleep behaviors might impact that relationship. ADHD has its core symptoms that impact the individual daily. These symptoms need to be taken into consideration when looking at internalized feelings and sleep behavior patterns. The theoretical framework that aligns with this study is the Dopaminergic Dysregulation Theory (DDT). This theory is a module that suggests that …

Body Language In Social Interactions: Patterns Of Nonverbal Behavior, Caleb Roten, Ivelina Naydenova

Journal of Counseling and Psychology

A two-part study was conducted on the qualitative and quantitative aspects of nonverbal behavior to investigate the factors that influence physical movement. The qualitative aspects of nonverbal behavior were investigated by testing the effects of academic anxiety on the amount of body language mirroring produced by a population of collegiate honors students. The honors students were induced with varying levels of academic anxiety based on groups, and were recorded to determine the quality of their movements in relation to stress level. To test the quantitative aspects, a broad range of participants was collected and assessed on their demographic variables, emotional …

Prosecuting Attorneys’ Experiences And Perceptions Of Evidence That Most Often Leads To Wrongful Convictions At The Pretrial Stage, Shari Lee Barton Harrell

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Before trial, prosecuting attorneys obtain and review evidence, including the types of evidence (i.e., perjury/false accusations, official misconduct, mistaken eyewitness testimony, false/misleading forensic evidence, false confessions, and inadequate defense counsel) that most often lead to wrongful convictions. The role of the prosector after conviction has been explored. The scholarly community needed to understand how prosecuting attorneys view this evidence at the pretrial stage so some wrongful convictions may be prevented. The purpose of this study was to explore prosecuting attorneys’ experience and perceptions regarding the evidence that most often leads to wrongful convictions at the pretrial stage. As part of …

Co-Design Of A Program For Medical Students’ Experiential Learning In Community-Engaged Research, Daenique H. A. Jengelley, Tess D. Weathers, Dustin O. Lynch, Morgan E. Ness, Luis Garcia, Gina E. Claxton, J. Dennis Fortenberry, Tamara S. Hannon

Journal of Community Engagement and Higher Education

Medical education may lack experiential training on authentic community engagement (CE). Employing a human-centered design approach with medical faculty and students to identify goals, opportunities, needs, and barriers to implementing CE research, we developed an Experiential Community Engagement Learning Series (EXCELS) pilot program. EXCELS supported both our community partners and medical students as a platform from which to learn from each other. EXCELS can be accomplished virtually, incorporated in medical training, and disseminated broadly.

Enhancing Undergraduate Education Through Social Innovation Projects: The Experience Of A Young University In Singapore, Intan Azura Mokhtar, Yong Lim Foo

Journal of Community Engagement and Higher Education

In this paper, social innovation is used as a catch-all phrase for projects and initiatives by higher education institutions (HEIs) related to community engagement, community-based learning, and service-learning. This paper explores the concept and application of social innovation in higher education, followed by a case study of implementing social innovation projects in a young, applied learning university in Singapore, a discussion of lessons learned, and plans for the near future in enhancing and strengthening its implementation.

The Civic Minded (Post) Graduate: Examining The Long-Range Benefits Of Community-Engaged Service Learning, Catherine Wilkins

Journal of Community Engagement and Higher Education

This project seeks to fill gaps in the knowledge about the long-term benefits of undergraduate participation in community-engaged service learning (CESL). A mixed-methods research protocol delivered to graduates of an R1 public university three years after the completion of a CESL senior capstone course observed significant divergences in knowledge and behavioral attributes of civic mindedness. This research methodology could be employed by other scholars to determine if these findings are reproducible.

Intergenerational Design Challenges: Participants’ Perspectives On Moving From Ideas To Implementation, Tina M. K. Newsham, Matthew J. Peterson, Alicia M. Sellon, Logan Elkins, Abrielle Leblanc, Tess Ryan, Andrew Zeldin

Journal of Community Engagement and Higher Education

Many social innovation efforts are aimed at meeting social challenges presented by the aging of the population, yet older adults are often excluded from such efforts. The purpose of this case study was to examine an approach used in a midsized university in southeast North Carolina to create intergenerational opportunities for students, local community organizations, and older adult residents of the surrounding area to collaboratively develop suggestions for addressing challenges facing the older adult population.

First-Year Intersections: Professional Preparation And Civic Engagement Across Four New American Colleges And Universities (Nacu) Campuses, Shereen Ilahi, Chastity Blankenship, Andy Morris, Jeffrey Thomas

Journal of Community Engagement and Higher Education

Four institutions hypothesized that civic engagement in first-year courses reinforces career readiness by helping students think critically, communicate effectively, and work well with diversity. We measured teamwork skills, the ability to synthesize and apply different perspectives, and the ability to express, listen to, and adapt ideas based on the perspective of others. We compared self-assessments to direct assessment of student-created artifacts and found a positive correlation that encourages further enquiry.

Feasibility Of A Peer-Facilitated Video-Based Mental Health And Substance Use Service-Learning Program, Mara Carmina A. Tamayo, King Filart, Maria Regina Hechanova

Journal of Community Engagement and Higher Education

This study examined the feasibility of implementing a peer-facilitated mental health and substance use video-based program delivered by psychology students as part of service learning. The program was delivered on-site and online. Findings reveal improvements in knowledge, attitudes, refusal self-efficacy, and adaptive coping among on-site participants. However, there was no effect on online participants given many implementation challenges. Recommendations include delivering the program on-site, strengthening training for facilitators, increasing program duration, and shortening the videos.

Community-Based Art Education In Early Field Experiences: Facilitating Opportunities For Preservice Art Education Students To Support Students With Disabilities, Kristin Vanderlip Taylor

Journal of Community Engagement and Higher Education

Preservice art education students are often required to engage in Early Field Experience (EFE) observation hours before entering a credential program. Community-based art education (CBAE) projects may provide them with EFE opportunities to apply what they are learning in art education environments beyond the traditional classroom. This article describes one such CBAE project with a nonprofit organization providing arts instruction to students with different abilities and needs, primarily those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Teaching About Substance Use Recovery: The Pedagogical Power Of Community-Based Learning, Jumi Hayaki, Isabelle Jenkins

Journal of Community Engagement and Higher Education

Community-based learning (CBL) is a form of experiential learning that integrates academic theory and content with active service in an applied setting. CBL is especially well suited for teaching about complex social issues. We present the case study of a psychology course on substance use recovery that leverages CBL to dismantle stereotypes, humanize a highly stigmatized mental health problem facing society, and afford students the opportunity to consider their own privilege and positionality.

A Preliminary Examination Of The Effects Of Moral Elevation On Pain Tolerance, Pain Severity, And Interpersonal Goals, Candice Hayden

Clinical Psychology Dissertations

Despite the abundance of chronic pain treatment research, chronic pain continues to affect an estimated 20% of the world's population; thus, new approaches are likely needed to expand treatment options. One innovative approach to managing chronic pain distress is moral elevation. Moral elevation is an emotion experienced after witnessing an act of virtue, often described as a feeling of being uplifted, inspired, or in awe. Moral elevation has been linked with positive health-related outcomes such as improved mental health symptoms and higher physical quality of life, as well as higher social functioning such as prosocial behavior and a greater sense …

Moral Judgment Toward Individuals In Consensually Non-Monogamous Relationships As A Function Of Moral Foundations And Disgust Sensitivity, Dylan Selterman, Jeff Bowen, Ria Datwani, Amy C. Moors

Psychology Faculty Articles and Research

In two experiments we demonstrate how participants perceive individuals in consensually non-monogamous relationships (e.g., polyamory) more negatively compared to those in monogamous relationships, as a function of moral foundation variables and trait-level disgust sensitivity. In Study 1, we experimentally presented participants with vignettes depicting characters in one of two relationship types (monogamous or non-monogamous), after which participants completed character judgments (ethics) and relationship impressions. Participants viewed the characters in a monogamous relationship as more ethical and having higher relationship quality, and these associations were fully mediated by perceptions of the characters as pure, loyal, caring, fair, and honest. Participants high …

Sex-Specific Effects Of Early-Life Unpredictability On Hippocampal And Amygdala Responses To Novelty In Adolescents, Elysia Poggi Davis, Bianca T. Leonard, Robert J. Jirsaraie, David B. Keator, Steven L. Small, Curt A. Sandman, Victoria B. Risbrough, Hal S. Stern, Laura M. Glynn, Michael A. Yassa, Tallie Z. Baram, Jerod M. Rasmussen

Psychology Faculty Articles and Research

Background

Unpredictable childhood experiences are an understudied form of early-life adversity that impact neurodevelopment. The neurobiological processes by which exposure to early-life unpredictability impact development and vulnerability to psychopathology remain poorly understood. In the current study, we investigated the sex-specific consequences of early-life unpredictability on the limbic network, focusing on the hippocampus and the amygdala.

Methods

Participants included 150 youths (54% female). Early-life unpredictability was assessed using the Questionnaire of Unpredictability in Childhood (QUIC). Participants engaged in 1 or more task–functional magnetic resonance imaging scans between the ages of 8 and 17 (223 total observations) measuring blood oxygen level–dependent (BOLD) …

African American Women's Lived Experience Of The Process And Outcomes Of Psychotherapy For Depression, Eva Coleman Springs

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

The study of individuals’ experiences in psychotherapy has resulted in improvements in delivery of services to clients. The purpose of the current study was to use Aragon’s primary provider theory as the theoretical foundation to explore African American women’s perceptions of the process and outcomes of their psychotherapy for depression. Phenomenological methodology was used to explore a sample of nine African American women’s perceptions of the process and outcomes of their psychotherapy for depression and other mental health issues. Participants answered nine semi-structured interview questions to describe their experiences of at least one session of psychotherapy in the 2023 calendar …

Low Premorbid Iq May Exacerbate The Cognitive Effects Of Apolipoprotein Ε4 (Apoe Ε4): A Multi-Ethnic Cross-Sectional Study From Habs-Hd, Lubnaa B. Abdullah, Zhengyang Zhou, Ney Alex Alliey, Robert Barber, James Hall, Sid O’Bryant

Psychological Science Faculty Publications

Introduction: Apolipoprotein allele 4 (APOE ε4) is associated with lower IQ scores during childhood and adolescence, but the influence of APOE ε4 and low IQ on late-life cognition is unknown. This study examines the association between APOE ε4 and cognitive outcomes based on premorbid intellectual ability (pIQ) and ethnic background.

Methods: Participants were drawn from the Health & Aging Brain Study–Health Disparities (HABS-HD), categorized by low (z ≤ −2.00) or average (z = 0.00 ± 1.00) pIQ based on word reading scores. Statistical analyses were conducted to evaluate whether APOE ε4 was associated with the cognitive domains of …

Exploring Buffering Effects Of Interpersonal Relationships On The Impacts Of Stress On Physical Health, Hadley Freedman, Sophie Forcier, Emma Slatnick, Keely Wright, Kevin M. Summers, Sarah Huff

DU Undergraduate Research Journal Archive

We examined the potential moderating effects of interpersonal relationships on the association between stress and physical health. We hypothesized that there would be a significant main effect of stress on physical health, a significant main effect of relationships on physical health, and a significant interaction between stress and relationship quality on physical health, such that quality relationships provide a buffering effect, reducing the negative impacts of stress on physical health. Data was collected through a self-report Qualtrics survey on CloudResearch. We found a significant main effect of stress on physical health and a significant main effect of relationship quality on …

Exploring Relationships Between Racial Bias, State Empathy, And Perceived Recovery Time Following A Medical Hardship, Kabe Aberle, Lydia Gengler, Madelyn Kavalieros, Brookelyn Mayfield, Kevin M. Summers, Sarah Huff

DU Undergraduate Research Journal Archive

This experiment investigated whether racial biases exist in laypeople's perceptions of recovery time following a common, medically-related hardship and whether these biases can be explained by differential empathy across race. White participants (n=133) read a vignette describing either a White or Black target who experienced a minor car accident. They then rated the amount of time they felt was reasonable for the target to take off from work and normal activities and how much time it would take to recover physically and mentally. Participants also completed measures of state empathy toward the target and their sleep quality. Results …

Du Undergraduate Showcase Abstracts: Research, Scholarship, And Creative Works, Kabe Aberle, Nadia Kako, Kateri Mcrae, Brooke Agulnek, Sky Palmon, Yasmine Ramirez, Francisca Aguirre Beltran, Ashley Juarez, Bridget Kim, Tessa Appel, Sterling Kerr, Spencer Ingley, Gabe Meyer, Robin Tinghitella, Dale Broder, Lily Baeza, Chloe Beers, Julia Coakley, Whitney Kelsey, Sydney Gainforth, Gabi Wing, Audrey Martin, Aaliyah Amore Berry, Brooke Watley, Kiruthika Venkatesan, Rachel Bienstock, Annabella Brotherston, Madison Bryant, Mia Burgener, Emma P. Lieb, Rachel A. Johnson, Jennifer L. Hoffman, Kania Campbell, Kiena Campbell, Courtney Cassidy, Sage Krzyzkowski, Maddox Jones, Skylar Abookire, Luke Hawkins, Sunnah Yoon, Andrea Chu, Yan Qin, Nyah Cubbison, Brian Gearity, Daniel Mcintosh, Mariely Cruz, Edward Garrido, Grady Dionne, Nicole Doris, Lyndsie Salvagio, Ann-Charlotte Granholm-Bentley, Anna Dymov, Hannah Eckert, Gabrielle Welsh, Erica Larson, Charlie Ernst, Anna Zhou, Sarah Watamura, Larissa Fedorovich-Klein, Georgie Fields, Kimberly A. Guevara, Aven Mccall, Ben Peltier, Feruz Yahia, Patrick Flores, Jadyn Floyd, Sophia Forcier, J. Von R. Monteza, Peter Sokol-Hessner, Gwendolyn Geiger, Scott Nichols, Camryn Gunter, Kendal Hengst, Charlie Bednarz, Issy Garside, Addison Baker, Rachel Mina, Brooke Hermanson, Amanda Klingler, William Highfill, Sydney Jaques, Kerstin Lewey, Allison Grossery, Daniel Linseman, Ethan Lim, Jagger Livengood, Owen Mantelli, Gabby Pappas, Abby Mcdonald, Madeleine Dierking, Eve Miller, Emma Loeber, Anna Marlow, Michael Kerwin, Ella Mathews, Hillary Hamann, Khadija Mohamed, Vivian Nguyen, Gabri Notov, Ifunayachi Ogbonna-Ukuku, Sunil Kumar, Charles Baysah, Sarah Olson, Don Sullivan, Anna Paradiso, Jay Parrish, Mira Pronobis, Alisha Pravasi, Kerstin Haring, Diego Ramirez, Christopher Reardon, Juliana Ramirez, Casey Doherty, Ella Kestner, Teagan Weindel, Cate Billings, Pablo Torre-Walter, Lucy Rand, Samantha Reynolds, Mark Siemens, Khadeeja Rashid, Laine Satterlee, Piper Heilbronner, Lily Pound, Ben Whitehurst, Anna Respet, Lizzie Lesoing, Sydney Hertel, Aya Saad-Masri, Brooke Ballenger, Max Proske, Hannah Rosenberg, Ellia Nakahara, Sophia Espinoza, Ivan Woolhouse, Simon Ruland, Gorkem Er, Timothy Sweeny, Melaku Saketa, Michela Schenk, Maren Lynch, Madi Hamm, Grace Schroeder, Michelle Rozenman, Rana Seif, Jackson Hall, Marisela Simental, Daniel Paredes, Aaron Mena, Preston Spaan, Evelyn Stovin, David Andrew Swartz, Anh Tran, Daniel Pittman, Luke Farchione, Emily Boyer, Ukari Verner, Lacey Conrad, Jonathan Velotta, James Weiner, Jagger Gossett, Noah Sherry, Sam Proud, Ben Block, Avi Narayana, Zoey Weiss, Alyssa Wilson, Gabrielle Walsh, David Zonana, Keely Wright, Kena Riveria, Lillybelle Deer, Jena Doom, Elysia Davis, Isabelle Yaremenko, Caitlyn Young

DU Undergraduate Research Journal Archive

Abstracts from the DU Undergraduate Research Showcase.

Ways Researchers Can Use Teacher Noticing To Inform The Conceptualization Of A Complex Teaching Practice, Shari L. Stockero, Keith R. Leatham, Blake E. Peterson

Michigan Tech Publications

Prior research has examined teachers’ noticing in order to understand what factors affect teacher noticing and how mathematics teacher educators can support that noticing. We contend, however, that analyzing teachers’ noticing has the potential to be used for additional purposes. In this paper, we illustrate how we used teachers’ noticing as one tool for gaining insight into our conceptualization of a complex teaching practice—the practice of building on student mathematical thinking. We provide examples of how our analysis of instances of noticing enhanced our understanding of the practice of building by revealing aspects of the practice that we had never …

Conflicting Social Information And Its Impact On Sentence Comprehension In Young Adults With Dld: An Eye Tracking Study, Ansley Davis

USF Tampa Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Individuals must recognize linguistic and non-linguistic social cues to resolve contextual ambiguities in their conversations. When the linguistic and social cues match, sentence processing is facilitated. However, conflicts between linguistic and social stimuli (i.e., incongruency) can lead to prediction errors which slow sentence processing. Limited research has explored the social cognition conflict resolution skills in individuals with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) despite their documented emotion processing deficits. This study considers the role of social prediction processing in adults with DLD as they engage in a social cognition conflict resolution task.

Young adults with DLD (n=29) and typically developing (TD) peers …

Experiences Of Managing And Living With Autoimmune Addison’S Disease In The Younger And Newly Diagnosed Adults: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, Mathew Horodner

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

There is a lack of knowledge regarding the experiences of managing and living with autoimmune Addison’s disease (AD) in the younger and newly diagnosed adults. AD research usually focuses on biological or medication studies. Thus, the purpose of this qualitative study was to understand the lived experiences of the younger and newly diagnosed adults living with autoimmune AD. Consisting of the complex integration of biological, psychological, and social factors, Engel’s biopsychosocial model served as the study’s conceptual framework. I conducted this study to include the experiences of managing and living with autoimmune AD in the younger (18–35) and newly diagnosed …

Big Five Personality Traits As Predictors Of Funeral Directors’ Job Satisfaction, Teresa Busick

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

By 2037, annual deaths in the United States are expected to exceed 3.6 million, over 1 million more than in 2015. At the same time, the funeral service industry faces a serious staffing problem, with about 50% of funeral directors leaving the profession within 2 years. These combined challenges highlight the need to understand what contributes to job satisfaction and helps to retain these workers in this essential field. This quantitative correlational study examined whether the Big Five personality traits predict job satisfaction among funeral directors. Thus, the Big Five model of personality traits was used to guide the study. …