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Articles 1 - 30 of 493
Full-Text Articles in Psychology
A Laboratory-Based Experimental Evaluation Of The Effects Of Values Clarification And Valued Contingencies On Problematic Smartphone Use Behavior, Max Roberts
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Problematic smartphone use (PSU) is a growing problem in need of effective interventions. The psychological inflexibility (PI) model of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) provides a transdiagnostic framework through which PSU can be conceptualized and intervention processes identified. One sub-process of the PI model – values clarity – is theoretically important in maintaining and ameliorating addictive behaviors like PSU. The present study tested the acute impact of values clarification on PSU behavior. Undergraduates (N = 130; 50% female) who self-identified as having problems with their smartphone use and valued helping children in need were randomized into one of three conditions …
Association Of Illness Perceptions, Illness Perception Incongruence, And Psychological Distress Among Caregivers In The Context Of Chronic Multi-Symptom Illness, Darren Winograd
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Following the common sense model of self regulation (CSM), how individuals think about an illness (i.e., illness perceptions) influences one’s level of psychological distress (e.g., burden, depression). This is thought to be especially true for illnesses which lack any clear medical etiology, termed chronic multi-symptom illness (CMI). While the impact of illness perceptions are well established predictors of distress among those diagnosed CMI, no known study has considered if illness perceptions similarly impact informal caregivers caring for individuals with CMI. This study therefore sought to examine if illness perceptions held by caregivers caring for individuals with CMI predicted caregiver psychological …
Autism Stigma And Symptoms Of Anxiety And Depression: An Exploration Of Rumination And Camouflaging As Mediating Factors, Emma Wilkinson
Autism Stigma And Symptoms Of Anxiety And Depression: An Exploration Of Rumination And Camouflaging As Mediating Factors, Emma Wilkinson
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
A small body of evidence indicates autistic people experience stigma related to autism that predicts mental health outcomes. Among other stigmatized populations, use of emotion regulation process and strategies are mechanisms by which stigma leads to negative outcomes. However, these mechanisms have not yet been explored in relation to autism stigma. In a sample of autistic adults, the present study sought to evaluate whether rumination and camouflaging mediated the relationship between autism stigma and internalizing symptoms utilizing a brief longitudinal design. Participants completed measures of stigma, rumination, camouflaging, and internalizing symptoms at baseline, one month, and two month timepoints. Results …
Clinical Supervision Through A Multicultural Lens: Burnout, Vigor, And Supervisee Quality Of Life, Jacob Alexander Moore
Clinical Supervision Through A Multicultural Lens: Burnout, Vigor, And Supervisee Quality Of Life, Jacob Alexander Moore
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
The present study sought to replicate and extend existing research (Hutman & Ellis, 2020; McNamara et al., 2023) on the relations among perceived clinical supervisor multicultural competency, and physical and psychological quality of life outcomes for supervisees. Utilizing a serial mediation analysis with a sample of 285 mental health supervisees, this study tested the predictive role of multicultural competency (MC) on supervisee quality of life (QoL), as mediated by the supervisor working alliance (SWA) and burnout/vigor (B/V) of the supervisee as a multivariate set, respectively. Multivariate multiple regression analysis was conducted to test the serial mediation hypotheses. Results indicated that …
Comprehensive Examination Of The Effect Of A Randomized Controlled Brief Mindfulness-Based Intervention On Autonomic Nervous System Functioning, Li Shen Chong
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Brief mindfulness-based interventions are comparable to traditional mindfulness-based interventions in alleviating stress and improving well-being. To explore the underlying biological mechanisms of these practices, researchers have been exploring the effects of mindfulness-based interventions through the autonomic nervous system (ANS), a major bodily stress response system. Nevertheless, most of these studies relied on one stress response system or a specific biomarker. This study aims to comprehensively examine the effectiveness of two sessions of brief mindfulness-based interventions on ANS functioning. Participants were assigned to the brief mindfulness intervention condition (n = 44) or control condition (n = 47). Participants’ physiological data, including …
Client Treatment Preferences In Psychedelic-Assisted Therapy For Depression In Participants With Depressive Symptoms, Alyssa B. Oliva
Client Treatment Preferences In Psychedelic-Assisted Therapy For Depression In Participants With Depressive Symptoms, Alyssa B. Oliva
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Research on psychedelic-assisted therapy (PAT), a promising treatment option for major depression, has not revealed if potential clients show preferences about the demographic characteristics of providers comparable to those common in other forms of psychotherapy. Previous work suggests that honoring comparable client preferences can enhance therapeutic outcomes. This study aims to investigate the importance ratings for a same-gender and a same-race therapist in both cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and PAT.
Clarifying The Relationship Between Weight Suppression And Eating Psychopathology: The Role Of Fear Of Weight Gain And Intolerance Of Uncertainty, Danielle Elizabeth Peters
Clarifying The Relationship Between Weight Suppression And Eating Psychopathology: The Role Of Fear Of Weight Gain And Intolerance Of Uncertainty, Danielle Elizabeth Peters
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Objective: Weight suppression (WS), the discrepancy between a person’s highest and current body weight, is largely associated with eating pathology in clinical and non-clinical samples. WS may put individuals in a biobehavioral bind: biological factors may drive the body toward weight regain, which in turn drives eating disorder (ED) behaviors in an attempt to prevent weight regain. However, few studies have examined psychological factors that may play a role in the biobehavioral bind of WS. As such, the present study aimed to (1) whether WS was associated with fear of weight gain (FOWG) and intolerance of uncertainty (IU) and (2) …
The Role Of Self-Determination Theory In Explaining The Relationship Of Challenge Demands With Engagement And Burnout, Andrew Decesare
The Role Of Self-Determination Theory In Explaining The Relationship Of Challenge Demands With Engagement And Burnout, Andrew Decesare
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
This dissertation sought to provide a more cohesive theoretical basis for the appraisal of challenge demands and demonstrate that engagement manifests through authentic self-expression in addition to the employment of personal energetic resources. Research has substantiated that employees can appraise the same job demands differently. However, the factors influencing the appraisal process has garnered limited focus to this point. Using self-determination theory as a basis, it was hypothesized that employees’ perceptions of challenge demands would be based on the aspirations (i.e., life goals) they valued and the level of autonomy they were afforded in their job. Employees who made greater …
Feasibility And Acceptability Of A Self-Paced, Online Workshop Targeting Self-Compassion Skills For Emerging Adults With Disordered Eating, Arielle Wolinsky
Feasibility And Acceptability Of A Self-Paced, Online Workshop Targeting Self-Compassion Skills For Emerging Adults With Disordered Eating, Arielle Wolinsky
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
The present paper includes two studies that explored the relevancy of self-compassion to emerging adults, expectancies of having a self-compassion mindset on disordered eating, and the prospective and concurrent acceptability and feasibility of a self-paced, online workshop targeting self-compassion skills for emerging adults with disordered eating. Study 1 was a cross- sectional study examining emerging adults’ understanding of self-compassion, expectancies of having a self-compassion mindset on disordered eating, and the feasibility and prospective acceptability of a proposed self-paced, online workshop targeting self-compassion skills for emerging adults with disordered eating. Study 1’s findings were incorporated into the design and implementation of …
Relating Perception And Memory For A Novel Set Of Reconfigurable Auditory Stimuli, Nathan Francis Gillespie
Relating Perception And Memory For A Novel Set Of Reconfigurable Auditory Stimuli, Nathan Francis Gillespie
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Although real-life events are complex and temporally extended, most memory research employs discrete, static stimuli presented in the visual modality. We begin to bridge this gap using a novel set of auditory stimuli constructed by adjusting the distribution of power across upper frequency bands. Across three experiments, participants rated similarity between pairs of sounds and engaged in a recognition memory task. We applied non-metric multidimensional scaling to similarity ratings to obtain a three-dimensional psychological representation of the stimuli. The representation inferred from the similarity ratings predicted recognition memory performance for single probe sounds following sequential presentation of two sounds. Recognition …
Survival Of The Optimist: How Emotion Words Are Processed Within The Survival Paradigm, Dailyn Quinn Clark
Survival Of The Optimist: How Emotion Words Are Processed Within The Survival Paradigm, Dailyn Quinn Clark
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Memory for words encoded for their fitness relevance is enhanced compared to memory for words encoded based on relevance to other scenarios (Nairne et al., 2007). Much of the work examining emotion within the survival paradigm has focused on the presented scenarios (Bell et al., 2013; Kazanas & Altarriba, 2017, 2018; Kroneisen et al., 2022). However, no work has yet to focus on the emotionality of the information that is being encoded. A possible contributor to the advantage may be the emotional valence of the encoded items, as emotion has been known to have effects on memory (Dev et al., …
Exploring The “Risky-Business” Of Employee Informal Field-Based Learning: Implications For Employee Engagement In Informal Workplace Learning Behaviors, Ricardo R. Brooks
Exploring The “Risky-Business” Of Employee Informal Field-Based Learning: Implications For Employee Engagement In Informal Workplace Learning Behaviors, Ricardo R. Brooks
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Employee learning and development are critical to organizational success, particularly for jobs with highly dynamic and demanding work environments that require adaptability and skill. The literature suggests that most employee learning and development occurs through informal means (Tannenbaum & Wolfson., 2022). However, there may be some interpersonal risk associated with engaging in informal learning behaviors such as being viewed as incompetent or lacking in expertise, resulting in fewer opportunities for development and promotion. The objective of this research was to expand the nomological net of antecedents and organizationally valued outcomes associated with informal learning behaviors and to understand how the …
Social Determinants Of Health As A Correlate Of Patient And Clinical Characteristics In Community Mental Health Care, Syed Aajmain
Social Determinants Of Health As A Correlate Of Patient And Clinical Characteristics In Community Mental Health Care, Syed Aajmain
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Background: Social determinants of health (SDOH) are conditions in the environment in which people live and work that influence health risks and outcomes. These include a range of social, economic, psychosocial, and behavioral factors such as food insecurity, hazardous housing, and financial resource strain. Such factors account for variance in numerous health outcomes, including life expectancy and quality of life. Studies on university student populations also demonstrate that unmet SDOH needs are associated with poorer self-assessed general health as well as higher anxiety and depression symptom severity. However, little is known about SDOH in the context of routine outpatient psychotherapy …
The Effect Of Autonomic Nervous System Functioning And Childhood Maltreatment On Empathy In Early Adulthood, Edward Charles Merritt
The Effect Of Autonomic Nervous System Functioning And Childhood Maltreatment On Empathy In Early Adulthood, Edward Charles Merritt
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Childhood maltreatment has a well-established link to both physical and psychological detriments later in life. Specifically, maltreatment has been found to be associated with changes in physiological functioning and increased aggressive behavior. Despite the well understood link with aggressive behavior, few studies have focused on the effects childhood maltreatment has on empathetic and prosocial behavior. Experienced adversity is theorized to increase one’s tendencies to adopt perspective and to feel a sense of responsibility for another’s welfare (Lim & DeSento, 2016). This study aims to examine how baseline autonomic functioning of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system moderate the relationship between …
Immigration Stress & Maternal Sensitivity In Mexican American Mothers: The Role Of Parasympathetic Activity & Cultural Resiliency Factors, Annabelle Armah
Immigration Stress & Maternal Sensitivity In Mexican American Mothers: The Role Of Parasympathetic Activity & Cultural Resiliency Factors, Annabelle Armah
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
The immigration process is associated with a host of cultural stressors that may impact family and parental wellbeing. The present study examined whether immigration stress was related to reduced maternal sensitivity, and whether lower PNS activity would account for their associations. A secondary aim was to test the buffering effect of cultural resiliency factors (i.e., familism values, cultural orientation) on maternal PNS activity. Data were drawn from a longitudinal study of Mexican American mothers (N = 322; M age = 27 years). Contrary to hypotheses, higher immigration stress was significantly associated with higher maternal resting RSA (B = 0.15, SE …
Perspective Taking And Imagination: The Role Of Episodic Processes In Contemporary Perspective Taking Effects, Cody Gilbert
Perspective Taking And Imagination: The Role Of Episodic Processes In Contemporary Perspective Taking Effects, Cody Gilbert
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Perspective taking has been the subject of considerable psychological research for decades. Numerous empirical articles provide evidence for a wide range of perspective taking effects across a variety of contexts. However, the role of imagination in these effects has not been sufficiently considered. With three studies, we demonstrated an influence of episodic processes in a recent experimental design which increases individuals’ willingness to help others (Study 1), a seminal perspective manipulation which enhances empathy (Study 2), and a further replication of the results found in the second study (Study 3). These findings strengthen current conceptualizations of these two psychological processes, …
Camouflaging And Identity Development Among Autistic Female And Gender Diverse Youth: A Qualitative Exploration, Krista Nicole Drapalik
Camouflaging And Identity Development Among Autistic Female And Gender Diverse Youth: A Qualitative Exploration, Krista Nicole Drapalik
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Adolescence is a vulnerable developmental period for autistic female and gender diverse youth. Many autistic youths use camouflaging to combat social challenges, perceived differences, and stigmatization. Although adolescence is an integral time for identity development, integration of these topics remains understudied among autistic female and gender diverse youth. The present study seeks to qualitatively explore first-person, youth-perspectives on the topics of camouflaging and identity formation. Ten autistic female and gender diverse youth aged 11 to 16 years (M = 13.1, SD = 1.52) and their caregivers were enrolled in the present study. Youths completed semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. …
Toward A Process-Based Account Of Mental Health Self-Stigma And Distress: Elucidating The Contribution Of Psychological Inflexibility And Its Six Component Subprocesses, Sara V. White
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Background: Stigma about mental health and illness remains a pervasive public health concern. Moreover, stigmatizing oneself for experiencing a mental health disorder is associated with further psychological distress. Yet, processes that may account for this relation remain unclear. Thus, the present study aimed to elucidate processes that may account for this relationship, with specific attention to psychological inflexibility as a transdiagnostic mediator between self-stigma and psychological distress. Methods: Undergraduates (N = 486, Mage = 18.68, SDage = 1.31, 66% Female) completed a battery of measures assessing self-stigma, psychological inflexibility, and psychological distress. We tested psychological inflexibility and its six subprocesses …
Adverse Family Experiences And Ethnicity As Risk And Resiliency Factors In The Link Between Psychological Distress And Perception Of Academic Stress In Undergraduate Students, Teresa Mejia
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Mental health problems have been associated with lower academic performance amongundergraduate students. In addition to individual well-being, environmental and cultural factors may contribute to greater academic stress. Specifically, early adverse family experiences (e.g., abuse, neglect, and family conflict) can have deleterious impacts on an individual’s emotional adjustment and perception of academic stress. However, the influence of ethnicity on the link between early family adversity and later academic stress has been largely understudied. Objective: This study examined whether adverse family experiences and ethnicity moderate the link between psychological distress and academic stress. Methods: Participants (N = 284, 38.4% male, 59.5% female, …
Barking Up The Wrong Need: How Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction At And Outside Of Work Interact To Influence Work Recovery, Matthew Hanson
Barking Up The Wrong Need: How Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction At And Outside Of Work Interact To Influence Work Recovery, Matthew Hanson
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Considering the myriad harmful consequences that arise when people are unable to sufficiently recover from work, further research into ways in which recovery can be promoted is valuable for individuals and organizations alike. Sufficient recovery from work not only depends on how much time people spend away from work. Indeed, how they spend that time is also important. Drawing upon Self-Determination Theory, the Conservation of Resources Theory, and Effort-Recovery Theory, I hypothesized that satisfying basic psychological needs outside of work that correspond with basic psychological needs that are less satisfied at work will make work recovery more efficient. I tested …
From Judgment To Action : Moral Cognition And The Tenuous Link To Moral Courage, Nathan Kemper
From Judgment To Action : Moral Cognition And The Tenuous Link To Moral Courage, Nathan Kemper
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Though specifics differ across cultures and even across individuals, research has shown surprising consensus as to what constitutes immoral behavior across societies (e.g., murder, theft). Even though much research has broadened our understanding of moral cognition, comparatively few studies have investigated moral action. There are real-world examples of people trying to intervene against immoral behavior, a behavior known as moral courage. This dissertation, comprised of a total of six studies across three manuscripts, seeks to add to the corpus of moral psychology by bridging the gap in knowledge regarding how connected moral cognition and action are. In the two studies …
Age-Of-Acquisition (Aoa) Impacts Spelling Error Detection : Evidence From An Online Proofreading Task, Madison Laks
Age-Of-Acquisition (Aoa) Impacts Spelling Error Detection : Evidence From An Online Proofreading Task, Madison Laks
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
During reading, words are processed faster if they are rated as being acquired early in life compared to later in life (i.e., age of acquisition effects; AoA). Given that the task demands for proofreading differ from reading, we investigated if AoA effects extend to an online proofreading task. Specifically, early- and late-acquired target words were embedded in sentence frames after being matched for a variety of potentially confounding variables, including word frequency, length, imageability, OLD-20, and familiarity (using the stimulus set from Juhasz & Sheridan, 2020). The participants rapidly proofread these sentences for spelling errors, and our results showed that …
Ptsd, Cannabis Use, And Expected Symptom Relief: Gender-Moderated Mediational Effects, Luna Fernandes Ueno
Ptsd, Cannabis Use, And Expected Symptom Relief: Gender-Moderated Mediational Effects, Luna Fernandes Ueno
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Introduction. The widespread, debilitating condition known as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) often covaries with cannabis use. A substantial number of individuals report experiencing temporary symptom relief when using cannabis. Nonetheless, most of the existing research that delves into the correlation between PTSD and cannabis use heavily features male samples. This lack of data from women is alarming given the gender discrepancies in cannabis use and cannabis-related expectancies. In this study, our goal is to validate the interplay between expectancies and use in women and explore gender differences in our sample. We predict that both women and men will expect cannabis …
The Dance Of Storytelling: How Therapists Facilitate Clients' Narrative-Emotion Shifting In Emotion-Focused Therapy For Trauma, Mengfei Xu
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
This qualitative study replicated and extended Friedlander et al.’s (2020) case study of time-limited dynamic psychotherapy (TLDP; Levenson, 2010) by investigating therapist behaviors immediately preceding client narrative-emotion shifting from problem markers to change markers in four successful cases of emotion-focused therapy for trauma (EFTT; Paivio & Pascual-Leone, 2010). The primary goal was to identify therapist behaviors in the early, middle and late phases of treatment that uniquely preceded change shifts as identified by the NarrativeEmotion Process Coding System (NEPCS; Angus Narrative-Emotion Marker Lab, 2015).
Counterfactual Thoughts And Their Relationship With Justice Perceptions, Wei Yang Sim
Counterfactual Thoughts And Their Relationship With Justice Perceptions, Wei Yang Sim
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Justice perceptions have been shown to be important to work outcomes, but their cognitive precursors are less understood. Fairness Theory offers a potential mechanism to help explain how they are formed. An experiment with 292 student respondents was conducted to study the effects of justice (i.e., just, ambiguous, unjust) and target (i.e., supervisor, organization) manipulations on counterfactual thought generation (i.e., mental simulations of plausible alternative realities) with the objective of elucidating the mechanism by which justice perceptions are formed. Findings suggest that negative counterfactual thoughts are prevalent explanatory vehicles that are used by individuals to make sense of justice-related situations. …
The Grass Is Greener On The Other Screen : A Moderated Mediation Analysis Of Social Media Use, Upward Social Comparison, And Social Support On Depression And Social Satisfaction Among College Students, Phoebe Edgerton Long
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Over the past decade, levels of depression and levels of social media use have risen considerably among college students in the United States. As such, a growing body of research has examined the relation between social media use and negative mental health outcomes among this population. However, research on the link between social media and depressive symptoms produces mixed and at times contradictory results. One evidenced mechanism is upward social comparison, by which a person perceives a peer to be better off than they are on social media, and subsequently makes negative evaluations about themselves. This study seeks to confirm …
Value Alignment In Online Reviews: A Determinant Of Applicant Attitudes And Intentions, Henri T. Maindidze
Value Alignment In Online Reviews: A Determinant Of Applicant Attitudes And Intentions, Henri T. Maindidze
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Of interest in this study is the way organizational values communicated in online reviews are recognized and interpreted by job applicants in relation to their personal values, with this comparison potentially influencing their attitudes and intentions in relation to the organization. An ancillary research question is whether quantitative or qualitative reviews have a greater impact on applicant attitudes and intentions. Drawing on signaling theory, I employed an experimental vignette design to examine whether person-organization (PO) fit perceptions explain the relationship between value alignment and an applicant’s recommendation intentions and organizational attraction. The main effect of value alignment on PO fit …
Verbal Barriers To Self-Compassion : The Frequency And Impact Of Frames Of Coordination And Opposition On Indices Of Distress And Well-Being, Shannon B. Underwood
Verbal Barriers To Self-Compassion : The Frequency And Impact Of Frames Of Coordination And Opposition On Indices Of Distress And Well-Being, Shannon B. Underwood
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Background: Self-compassion has received increased attention as a process of change inevidence-based psychotherapies, owing to its relation with numerous positive health outcomes. Though several practices have been shown to increase self-compassion, our aim here is to evaluate the utility of one particular practice, namely loving-kindness or metta meditation (LKM). Despite evidence supporting biological and psychological benefits of LKM, other research has identified various nonspecific barriers and challenges associated with this practice that are linked with poor response to the practice itself. Relational Frame Theory (RFT) provides a behavioral and contextual perspective that may help clarify for whom LKM would likely …
The Moderating Role Of Food Cravings In The Relationship Between Weight Suppression And Binge Eating And Purging In Emerging Adults, Susana Cruz Garcia
The Moderating Role Of Food Cravings In The Relationship Between Weight Suppression And Binge Eating And Purging In Emerging Adults, Susana Cruz Garcia
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
Weight suppression (WS), the difference between an individual’s current and highest adult weight, is predictive of bulimic symptoms and poor eating disorder treatment outcomes, but findings from non-clinical samples have been mixed. Cravings are strong urges for specific foods that are subjectively difficult to resist. Food cravings are now widely conceptualized as cognitive-affective states characterized by intrusive thoughts that are perceived as distressing and can interfere with adaptive functioning. Food cravings are known antecedents of binge eating, but little is known about how they interact with WS. This study examines the obsessive-compulsive aspects of food cravings as potential moderators of …
Three-Factor Model Of Behavior Intervention : Psychometric Properties Of The Behavior Intervention Self-Efficacy (Bise) Scale, Ayaka Hisanaga-Probst
Three-Factor Model Of Behavior Intervention : Psychometric Properties Of The Behavior Intervention Self-Efficacy (Bise) Scale, Ayaka Hisanaga-Probst
Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)
The present study theorized the dimensions of classroom behavior intervention, hypothesizing that preparedness to handle perceived challenging behaviors would split into three factors: internalizing behaviors, attention-related behaviors, and social behaviors. Based on this theory, a psychological measurement, the Behavior Intervention Self-Efficacy (BISE) scale was developed. The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the BISE, investigating the factor structure, validity evidence based on the relationship with a similar scale, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability. Furthermore, the variability of the BISE responses was analyzed based on demographic characteristics of the school environment, training background, work experience, and …