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Articles 14191 - 14220 of 73878

Full-Text Articles in Psychology

Childhood Maltreatment And Suicidal Ideation: The Role Of Insecure Attachment, Alexithymia, And Negative Urgency., Surabhi Swaminath Jan 2023

Childhood Maltreatment And Suicidal Ideation: The Role Of Insecure Attachment, Alexithymia, And Negative Urgency., Surabhi Swaminath

Dissertations and Theses

Suicide is a significant cause of preventable death, especially among young adults. Survivors of childhood maltreatment are at heightened risk of experiencing suicidal ideation and following through on suicide-related thoughts. Insecure attachment, alexithymia, and impulsivity (negative urgency) are known risk factors for suicidal ideation. However, the combined role of these variables in association with suicidal ideation is not fully understood. The current study tested the role of insecure attachment, alexithymia, and negative urgency in the relationship between child maltreatment and ideation via a path model in young adults between 18 and 29 (N = 441). We hypothesized that maltreatment would …

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A Phenomenological Study: Examining Resilience In Native American Women Who Witnessed Domestic Violence In Childhood And Experienced Domestic Violence In Adulthood, Arial Swallow Jan 2023

A Phenomenological Study: Examining Resilience In Native American Women Who Witnessed Domestic Violence In Childhood And Experienced Domestic Violence In Adulthood, Arial Swallow

Dissertations and Theses

Domestic violence has significant acute and long-lasting harmful effects on the well-being of women from all backgrounds with higher rates of psychological effects in ethnic minority populations. Native American women experience domestic violence at disproportionate rates and face unique barriers in overcoming challenges of healing from domestic violence. Even though the impact of domestic violence in children and adults is well-studied, research in rural and Native American populations is scarce. Women who have witnessed or experienced domestic violence in childhood have identified challenges and strengths and developed coping strategies to help them endure and adapt to surviving domestic violence in …

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Growing Up Ghanaian: The Well-Being Of Ghanaian Children In The United States And Ghana, Akua Bemma Opoku Jan 2023

Growing Up Ghanaian: The Well-Being Of Ghanaian Children In The United States And Ghana, Akua Bemma Opoku

Dissertations and Theses

Children’s subjective well-being is a child’s judgment of their well-being. Subjective well- being can have positive and negative indicators. Positive indicators include but are not limited to safety, feeling happy, and feeling excited. Negative indicators include but are not limited to lack of safety, lack of confidence, and sadness. Children’s ethnic background and their relation to their ethnic background may influence their subjective well-being. Research focusing on ethnic identity and child well-being has found positive associations. Research has also found a relationship between the context of family, school, peers, religion, community, and ethnic identity. This comparative phenomenological study aimed to …

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Culturally Responsive Mental Health: Providing For Midwestern Hispanic/Latinx Communities, Sara Leila Zare Jan 2023

Culturally Responsive Mental Health: Providing For Midwestern Hispanic/Latinx Communities, Sara Leila Zare

Dissertations and Theses

Hispanic/Latinx communities face a troubling number of barriers in accessing mental health services. Many difficulties associated with access have been studied within urban communities across the southern and western regions of the United States. However, over the past two decades, the Midwest has become a geographical location where this ethnic group has and will continue to see exponential growth. Unfortunately, adequate mental health services for the growing population within this geographic region are scarce. Additionally, more rural areas of the Midwest are heavily impacted by a lack of adequate mental health care services. The barriers that exist to access mental …

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Utilizing The Alternative Model Of Personality Disorders (Ampd) To Identify Sexual Aggression In Men, Ryan Van Fossen Jan 2023

Utilizing The Alternative Model Of Personality Disorders (Ampd) To Identify Sexual Aggression In Men, Ryan Van Fossen

Dissertations and Theses

The current study examined the validity of the Alternative Model of Personality Disorders (AMPD) in predicting sexually aggressive cognitions in men. Specifically, this study examined the role of maladaptive personality traits and personality functioning’s relationship with sexually aggressive beliefs in comparison to the Five-Factor Model (FFM). This study recruited 300 male participants, aged 18 and older, who identified as male for both sex and gender, and identified as heterosexual. Participants completed measures of personality functioning, several personality traits, views about sexual entitlement, gender roles, rape myths, and token resistance to sex. Multiple regression and semipartial correlation analyses were used to …

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Substance Use And Trauma Among Adult Education Students In The United States, Brittany Miller-Roenigk, Michael Awad, Maria C. Crouch, Derrick M. Gordon Jan 2023

Substance Use And Trauma Among Adult Education Students In The United States, Brittany Miller-Roenigk, Michael Awad, Maria C. Crouch, Derrick M. Gordon

Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology Faculty Publications

Adult basic education (ABE) programs in the United States serve millions of students annually to help them achieve high school equivalency, English proficiency, and other skills. These skills are necessary for upward mobility and competitiveness in the labor market, which is important for ABE students who are disproportionately affected by racial/ethnic disparities and poverty. Among learners who are not in ABE programs, substance use and trauma affect student outcomes. Similar research is limited among ABE students. Understanding the influence of these factors among ABE students can better inform interventions. The current study, grounded in Stress and Coping Theory, examined rates, …

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The Scientific Study Of Positive Psychology, Religion/Spirituality, And Physical Health, Kevin S. Masters, Julia K. Boehm, Jennifer M. Boylan, Kaitlyn M. Vagnini, Christina L. Rush Jan 2023

The Scientific Study Of Positive Psychology, Religion/Spirituality, And Physical Health, Kevin S. Masters, Julia K. Boehm, Jennifer M. Boylan, Kaitlyn M. Vagnini, Christina L. Rush

Psychology Faculty Books and Book Chapters

Humans have long been interested in relations among religion/spirituality (R/S), positive psychological constructs, and physical health. Furthermore, many religions attempt to influence behavior through health-related prescriptions about food choices, sexual activity, substance use, and resting. Similarly, positive psychological constructs have been discussed in light of their presumed benefits on both mental and physical health (Ryff & Singer, 1998). However, R/S and positive psychological constructs have only recently become objects of scientific investigation of their associations with physical health.

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Parent Anger Relates To Cortisol Elevations For Children Attending Head Start Preschool, Jamie Gensbauer Jan 2023

Parent Anger Relates To Cortisol Elevations For Children Attending Head Start Preschool, Jamie Gensbauer

West Chester University Master’s Theses

A robust research literature suggests that the impact of early adversity on child developmental outcomes is partially mediated or explained by the physiological stress response functioning. Economic hardship, for example, has been linked to dysregulation in levels of the stress hormone cortisol, as has negative parent emotion expression. Whereas a number of studies have examined links between parent depression and anxiety and child stress levels, the present study is the first we know of to examine parent anger in relation to child cortisol. Participants were 370 children attending Head Start preschool, and their parents or primary caregivers. According to federal …

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Development Of A Reinforcer Assessment: A Measure Of Potential Reinforcers In The Lives Of Older Adults, Nicole A. Praska Jan 2023

Development Of A Reinforcer Assessment: A Measure Of Potential Reinforcers In The Lives Of Older Adults, Nicole A. Praska

All Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Other Capstone Projects

The aim of this study was to create a new measure that assesses potential reinforcers in the lives of older adults residing in assisted living facilities. It is important to assess what an individual finds rewarding since individuals have a greater quality of life if they are doing activities that they enjoy. The study involved a two-step process. First, a list of potential reinforcers was created and evaluated by professionals in the field. Then this list was formatted into a survey and presented to 612 older adults. Participants rated these potential reinforcers on a Likert scale. Results were then evaluated …

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Attachment Security Moderating The Effects Of Social Media Use On Body Dissatisfaction In Adolescent Girls, Jenna Walters Jan 2023

Attachment Security Moderating The Effects Of Social Media Use On Body Dissatisfaction In Adolescent Girls, Jenna Walters

Senior Honors Theses and Projects

Social relationships are important for the vast majority of people, especially adolescents. Social media has become increasingly common in people under the age of 30 and has been associated with body dissatisfaction and stress; furthermore, insecure attachment styles have also been associated with body dissatisfaction in adolescents. Using the survey results from 104 adolescent girls from a Midwestern metropolitan area, this study examined how attachment style potentially moderates the relationship between three social media variables (frequency of use, emotional investment in social media, and pressure felt from media) and body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls. Controlling for age and body mass …

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The Impact Of Belief In A Just World And Social Dominance Orientation On Reactions To Pay Inequities, Sydney Rae Dhue Jan 2023

The Impact Of Belief In A Just World And Social Dominance Orientation On Reactions To Pay Inequities, Sydney Rae Dhue

Senior Honors Theses and Projects

Prior work has examined how racial prejudice can lead to the acceptance of unjust pay toward women and minorities. Other work has found that people who are high in the belief in a just world (BJW) often accept the outcome of events and situations despite differences in outcomes for certain individuals or groups. This research examined if BJW and social dominance orientation (SDO) contributes to the acceptance of pay discrimination toward African Americans. In the research participants read a description of a job applicant and an offer of employment toward that applicant. For the description, participants received explicit information that …

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“Who Do You Love, And Are You For Sure?”: Black Relationship Attitudes And Partner Preferences, Chesmore Simon Montique Jan 2023

“Who Do You Love, And Are You For Sure?”: Black Relationship Attitudes And Partner Preferences, Chesmore Simon Montique

Theses and Dissertations--Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology

Historically, research has identified Black relationships as deviant, unstable, and pathological as compared to White relationships (Frazier, 1966; Moynihan, 1965). This outlook centers on White experiences as a baseline for comparison and dismisses the cultural nuance within Black relationships. Examining intraracial Black relationship formation dynamics – specifically romantic partner preferences – using an intersectional framework seems more relevant as Black people are least likely of all races to date White people (Batson et al., 2006; Yancey, 2009). As Black immigrants continue to increase their presence in the U.S. (Anderson & López, 2018), the current research examines how cultural factors influence …

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Perceived Marginalization, Social Support, And Mental Health: The Role Of Parasocial Relationships, Madison Christy, Aimee Adam Jan 2023

Perceived Marginalization, Social Support, And Mental Health: The Role Of Parasocial Relationships, Madison Christy, Aimee Adam

Modern Psychological Studies

The purpose of the current study was to extend previous research (Woznicki et al., 2020) to see if parasocial relationships (PSRs) with figures from various social media platforms might be beneficial for those lower in real-life social support. We predicted that there would be a negative relationship between social support and perceptions of marginalization, loneliness, and depression, but that for people who perceived themselves as marginalized, the relationship between social support and loneliness would change depending on the strength of their PSR. In this correlational study, 135 participants took an online Qualtrics survey which assessed social media use, PSR strength, …

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Effects Of A Brief Exposure To Nature Or Social Media On Psychological Well-Being, Megan C. Hall, Samantha L. Mcmichael, Virginia Sy Kwan Jan 2023

Effects Of A Brief Exposure To Nature Or Social Media On Psychological Well-Being, Megan C. Hall, Samantha L. Mcmichael, Virginia Sy Kwan

Modern Psychological Studies

Social media has enhanced our ability to connect with each other globally; however, social media is not necessarily beneficial. Given the potential negative impact of social media use on psychological well-being, it is important to identify resources that may buffer this impact. One resource may be exposure to nature. Participants exposed to nature scenes experienced less negative affect compared to those exposed to social media. Those who spent more time outside tended to experience decreased negative affect when they viewed both social media and nature photos, but when viewing only social media, they experienced increased negative affect. Relations between humans, …

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Substance Use Disorder Prevention Among Sexual And Gender Minority Youth, Jack K. Connors, Carolyn Mcnamara Barry Jan 2023

Substance Use Disorder Prevention Among Sexual And Gender Minority Youth, Jack K. Connors, Carolyn Mcnamara Barry

Modern Psychological Studies

Substance Use Disorder (SUD) has a more prevalent effect on Sexual and Gender Minority Youth (SGMY), leading to a need for dedicated and specialized programs to reduce disparity. The review included 18 scholarly articles, ranging from the years 1992 to 2022. In the present review, we explored factors related to SGMY substance use, including those that protect and insulate this vulnerable population against a negative coping skill with a wide array of neurological, emotional, and societal adjustment problems. We concluded that SGMY experience SUD more than their straight, cisgender peers. Also, targeted interventions are necessary to curb maladaptive coping strategies …

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The Importance Of Health Anxiety And Emotional Reasoning To Understand Vaccine Hesitancy And Safety Behaviors: Implications For Public Health Campaigns In A Covid-19 Era, Samantha J. Ballas, Kimberli R. Treadwell Jan 2023

The Importance Of Health Anxiety And Emotional Reasoning To Understand Vaccine Hesitancy And Safety Behaviors: Implications For Public Health Campaigns In A Covid-19 Era, Samantha J. Ballas, Kimberli R. Treadwell

Modern Psychological Studies

This study examined the impact of health anxiety and emotional reasoning on COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and preventative behaviors, hypothesizing that high anxiety and emotional reasoning would predict lower vaccine hesitancy and higher COVID-19 preventative health behavior after controlling for demographic variables. A large international non-probability convenience sample of 532 individuals consented to an online survey in a cross-sectional period from March through August 2021 (one month following availability of vaccinations in the USA). Participants completed questionnaires online. Findings revealed that health anxiety and general anxiety were significantly correlated with COVID-19 preventative behaviors, including mask wearing and social distancing, and emotional …

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Evaluation Of Three Pour Training Procedures For Beer, Wine, And Liquor, Makenzie C. Heatherly, Mychal A. Machado, Bethany G. Munden Jan 2023

Evaluation Of Three Pour Training Procedures For Beer, Wine, And Liquor, Makenzie C. Heatherly, Mychal A. Machado, Bethany G. Munden

Modern Psychological Studies

The purpose of this study was to determine if stimulus fading, verbal feedback, and superimposition training would improve college students’ acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of accurate pours of beer, wine, and liquor. Twenty participants were assigned to stimulus fading (n = 5), verbal feedback (n = 5), superimposition training (n = 5), or a repeated-pouring condition (n = 5). Pour accuracy served as the primary dependent measure and was defined as pouring within 10% of a standard serving of each alcohol type. Pour accuracy was assessed before training, immediately after training, and 1 week and 30 days following training using …

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Reliable Change In College Coursework Self-Efficacy, Nancy R. Patel, Matthew H. Kim, Justin E. Karr Jan 2023

Reliable Change In College Coursework Self-Efficacy, Nancy R. Patel, Matthew H. Kim, Justin E. Karr

Modern Psychological Studies

This study aimed to examine the test-retest reliability of the College Self-Efficacy Inventory-Coursework subscale (CSEI-C) and calculate cutoffs for determining reliable change. A sample of 39 college students from a U.S. university (M=19.0±1.0 years old, 84.6% women, 64.1% White) completed the CSEI-C twice (test-retest interval: M=55.4±12.4 days). The CSEI-C had good test-retest reliability, per the intraclass correlation (ICC=.85). The cutoffs of detecting reliable change were ±.91, ±1.12, and ±1.44 for 70%, 80%, and 90% confidence intervals, respectively. College students often experience mental health problems, and those presenting for psychotherapy may experience concurrent reductions in academic self-efficacy. Clinicians could use the …

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Alpha Band Prefrontal Asymmetry Does Not Underlie Pain Approach-Avoidance: Results From Two Eeg Studies, Tracy W. Brown, Kayli N. Colpitts, Cristian M. Botello, Abby K. Hartman, Kathryn P. Seymour, Callie De La Cerda, Amber L. Harris Bozer Jan 2023

Alpha Band Prefrontal Asymmetry Does Not Underlie Pain Approach-Avoidance: Results From Two Eeg Studies, Tracy W. Brown, Kayli N. Colpitts, Cristian M. Botello, Abby K. Hartman, Kathryn P. Seymour, Callie De La Cerda, Amber L. Harris Bozer

Modern Psychological Studies

Pain research is often focused on escape from pain or approach of relief, yet individuals with chronic pain make complex choices to face their pain to satiate other drives (approach-avoidance conflicts). An abundance of research has indicated that prefrontal alpha band asymmetry (PFA) underlies approach-avoidance in general, but there is limited information about whether PFA underlies pain approach-avoidance conflicts. Electroencephalogram activity was recorded while 70 participants with chronic pain (n=33) and without chronic pain (n=37) approached/avoided stimuli containing simultaneous pain (low-high) and monetary reward (low-high). Findings from both studies revealed that approach-avoidance for pain stimuli is not accompanied by prefrontal …

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Effects Of Chronic Cannabis Use On Adolescents, Matthew R. Rappaport, Raymond Collings Dr. Jan 2023

Effects Of Chronic Cannabis Use On Adolescents, Matthew R. Rappaport, Raymond Collings Dr.

Modern Psychological Studies

This literature will examine the relationship of chronic cannabis use during adolescence to psychological and morphological abnormalities into adulthood. As states continue to decriminalize or legalize cannabis consumption for recreational purposes, concerns about the potential negative effects of cannabis consumption on neurological development during adolescence may be ignored. This review examined 44 journal articles and government reports published between 1997 and 2021. The conclusions drawn from the literature review indicate that over a 19-year time span, cannabis potency has increased from ~4% to ~12%. Secondly, the chronic exposure to exogenous cannabinoids during this time can result in a variety of …

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Adoption And Foster Microaggressions Amidst Covid-19: Pandemic-Related Stress May Increase Negative Judgments Of Others, Mikala A. Grimaldi, Holly A. Grant-Marsney, Ashley A. Hansen-Brown Jan 2023

Adoption And Foster Microaggressions Amidst Covid-19: Pandemic-Related Stress May Increase Negative Judgments Of Others, Mikala A. Grimaldi, Holly A. Grant-Marsney, Ashley A. Hansen-Brown

Modern Psychological Studies

One community that has often been overlooked while facing frequent negative perceptions and stigma is adopted individuals. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic at the start of this research, we hypothesized that scenarios of individuals from foster and adoptive families would be more likely to be associated with common misrepresentations that emphasize child-like qualities and lower competency compared to non-adopted peers. We surveyed 313 participants through Amazon’s Mechanical Turk, after exclusion criteria, the sample consisted of 217 participants. Although the original hypothesis was not supported, our results indicate that higher pandemic-related stress influences perceptions of entitlement and infantilization towards others regardless …

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Early Childhood Language And Literacy Development Programs For Autism Spectrum Disorder And D/Deaf And Hard-Of-Hearing Students, Mayson Spillman Jan 2023

Early Childhood Language And Literacy Development Programs For Autism Spectrum Disorder And D/Deaf And Hard-Of-Hearing Students, Mayson Spillman

Lewis Honors College Thesis Collection

This paper examines several popular approaches in the United States for enhancing early childhood literacy and language development in two special education populations— d/Deaf or hard-of-hearing (d/DHH) students and students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In addition to examining the effectiveness of these approaches, I adopt an educational equity lens to describe how variability in implementation can impact outcomes for these children. Based on my critical reading of the literature, I offer three broad recommendations for school psychologists: (1) Carefully consider dosage and fidelity of implementation, (2) Use caution when modifying existing interventions for these populations, and (3) Increase in-service …

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Bibliography, Aaron Wichman Jan 2023

Bibliography, Aaron Wichman

Faculty/Staff Personal Papers

Bibliography of publications by Aaron Wichman.

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Anticipation, Autonomic Regulation, And Aces, Sadie K. Schiermeyer, Ella Bursky, Timothy Oakley, Emily Pyle Jan 2023

Anticipation, Autonomic Regulation, And Aces, Sadie K. Schiermeyer, Ella Bursky, Timothy Oakley, Emily Pyle

Science University Research Symposium (SURS)

Stress and anticipation are some of the most commonly talked about topics in the current age of self-help and wellness. Anticipatory stress has been found to aid in autonomic regulation and stress relief (Nasso et al., 2018). What’s more, adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have been previously associated with a blunted response to stress, but the mechanisms have not been investigated. The primary aim of this study was to identify if the anticipation of a stressor significantly influenced an individual’s autonomic response. Additionally, it sought to identify any correlation between childhood trauma and individuals’ stress response. Participants were comprised of undergraduate …

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Emerging Adult Resilience, Caroline Avery, Natalie Fountain, Hannah Jones, Sarah Margaret Burns Jan 2023

Emerging Adult Resilience, Caroline Avery, Natalie Fountain, Hannah Jones, Sarah Margaret Burns

Science University Research Symposium (SURS)

This study examined how emerging adult resilience predicts perceived stress, life satisfaction, and coping skills, while controlling the number of daily hassles. Resilience is the process of overcoming the negative effects of risk exposure, coping successfully with traumatic experiences, and avoiding the negative trajectories associated with risks (Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005; Olsson et al., 2003; Pooley & Cohen 2010). Based on previous literature, lowered perceived stress, increased coping skills, and increased life satisfaction have all been related to resilience, though these are looked at individually and not all together (Diener et al., 1985; Ong & Legger, 2022; Wang. 2019). In …

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Professional Perception Of Gaps In Adhd Diagnosis And Treatment In Young Girls, Claudia Caputo Jan 2023

Professional Perception Of Gaps In Adhd Diagnosis And Treatment In Young Girls, Claudia Caputo

Honors Undergraduate Theses

ADHD has become a common place subject in both the scientific community and the common public. ADHD is talked about in the media, schools, and is a common conversation amongst parents. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder has become prominent due to increased research but also due to increased accessibility of this research for the public. Contributing to this trend, there is an increase in open conversations about mental health awareness on social media. This phenomenon of people openly speaking about ADHD has led to more teens and young adults seeking diagnostic assessments and treatments for their symptoms. (Coppersmith et al., 2015) …

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Impact Of Childhood Adversity On Executive Functioning And The Relationship Between Hypervigilance And Heuristics Among College Students, Tamara S. Van Newhouse Jan 2023

Impact Of Childhood Adversity On Executive Functioning And The Relationship Between Hypervigilance And Heuristics Among College Students, Tamara S. Van Newhouse

Honors Undergraduate Theses

The topic of exposure to childhood adversity has comprehensively been explored, and the effects of childhood trauma can undoubtedly impact a person on a lifelong continuum, still, investigation is unceasingly conducted. Much research has yet to be done when considering early adversity's outcomes on various stages throughout life and just how reoccurring consequences from early trauma may impair regulatory abilities and executive functioning beyond childhood. Research objective is to discover how early adversity influences later executive functions in conjunction to heuristics and the effects of hypervigilance in a college student populace. This study aims to examine the several variable differences …

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Effect Of Gender And Attachment Styles On The Formation Of Parasocial Rleationships, Breanna Carlson, Frank Lien Jan 2023

Effect Of Gender And Attachment Styles On The Formation Of Parasocial Rleationships, Breanna Carlson, Frank Lien

Concordia Journal of Communication Research

New streaming services, social media platforms, and advances in talk and text are constantly developing in society today. The constant addition to new technological outlets creates a larger platform for viewers to watch and follow their favorite celebrity, television character, or influencers whenever they want. The researchers chose to investigate how a person’s attachment style affects both the likelihood and severity of forming a parasocial relationship with their favorite celebrity or T.V. personality. Specifically, the researchers explored the effect both gender and experiences affect this connection. Participants of the study attend a Lutheran, faith-based institution of college education in an …

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The Effects Of A Six-Week Mindfulness Intervention Designed For Adolescents On Emotion Regulation And Perceived Stress In College Students, Theodora Malinowski Jan 2023

The Effects Of A Six-Week Mindfulness Intervention Designed For Adolescents On Emotion Regulation And Perceived Stress In College Students, Theodora Malinowski

West Chester University Doctoral Projects

College students are a vulnerable population to developing mental health problems. Without adequate emotion regulation abilities and adaptive coping skills to manage stress, college students are at risk of experiencing negative mental and physical health outcomes. Mindfulness has been shown to improve mental and physical health. Unfortunately, many mindfulness interventions are developed with the needs of adults in mind. Some features of common mindfulness programs, such as cost and required length of daily practice, make the interventions difficult for most college students to access. The present study investigated the effects of a six-week mindfulness intervention (Learning to BREATHE) that was …

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Community Violence And Adolescent Aggression: The Moderating Role Of Perceived Parental Support, Giemaly Soto Jan 2023

Community Violence And Adolescent Aggression: The Moderating Role Of Perceived Parental Support, Giemaly Soto

West Chester University Doctoral Projects

Prior research suggests that perceived support protects youth from externalizing problems that are typically associated with exposure to violence. The current study examined the extent to which perceived parental support (PPS) moderated the relationship between exposure to community violence and aggression among 130 high school students (78% Black/African American; 63% female; M age = 15.78), most from low-income families, in communities characterized by concentrated poverty and high rates of violent crime. This cross-sectional study utilized baseline data from two earlier studies evaluating a cognitive-behavioral, preventative intervention group for high school students living in or attending schools in low-income, urban neighborhoods …

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