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Full-Text Articles in Civil and Environmental Engineering

Incorporating Crash Severity And Continuous Improvement Of Shift, Reginald Souleyrette, Riana Tanzen, Teng Wang Apr 2023

Incorporating Crash Severity And Continuous Improvement Of Shift, Reginald Souleyrette, Riana Tanzen, Teng Wang

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The Strategic Highway Investment Formula for Tomorrow (SHIFT) is the Kentucky Transportation Cabinet's data-informed approach for comparing capital improvement projects and prioritizing limited transportation funds. SHIFT 2022 incorporates advancements in methods and flexibility. This project revises the SHIFT crash data safety metric. The crash data safety metric from the previous version of SHIFT was excess expected crashes (EECs). It is computed using the total number of crashes of all severities. Locations with a higher proportion of severe (fatal and injury) crashes received the same weight as locations with an equal number of property damage only crashes. This project redefines the …

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Utilizing The System Engineering Trade Study Analysis Method To Analyze Patient Aeromedical Evacuation, Sara Shaghaghi, Jeremy M. Slagley, Michael E. Miller, Gaiven Varshney Apr 2023

Utilizing The System Engineering Trade Study Analysis Method To Analyze Patient Aeromedical Evacuation, Sara Shaghaghi, Jeremy M. Slagley, Michael E. Miller, Gaiven Varshney

Faculty Publications

The US Air Force has gone through many aeromedical patient isolation transport system designs. The first designs were developed in response to the Ebola outbreak in 2014 and, more recently, the COVID-19 pandemic. The trade study analysis part of the system engineering design method was used to analyze the historic and current aeromedical patient contamination control transport systems. A trade study is a process that evaluates alternatives based upon various “-ilities”, such as reconfigurability, flexibility, durability, cost, and more, and performs a systematic analysis to aid designers in producing a ‘good’ design alternative given the large set of possible solutions. …

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Quantifying The Impact Of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement On The Skid Resistance Of Surface Mixtures, Sheng Hu, Fujie Zhou, Tom Scullion, Emmanuel Fernando, Mena I. Souliman Apr 2023

Quantifying The Impact Of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement On The Skid Resistance Of Surface Mixtures, Sheng Hu, Fujie Zhou, Tom Scullion, Emmanuel Fernando, Mena I. Souliman

Civil Engineering Faculty Publications and Presentations

Pavement skid resistance is critical for public safety, especially in wet-weather conditions. In Texas, as the population grows and the likelihood of wet-surface crashes and fatalities increases, the use of Surface Aggregate Classification A (SAC-A) aggregate has significantly increased each year to improve pavement skid resistance. Texas Department of Transportation specifications allow for the use of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) to conserve natural resources and save costs. However, the impact of RAP on the skid resistance of the surface mixture was unknown or not quantitatively studied. Currently, all RAPs are categorized as Surface Aggregate Classification B aggregate in Texas. This …

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Potential Of Flow Energy Reduction By Coral Reef: Hydrodynamic Analysis On Acropora Species, Faisal Karim Apr 2023

Potential Of Flow Energy Reduction By Coral Reef: Hydrodynamic Analysis On Acropora Species, Faisal Karim

Theses

One of the most crucial components of the ocean ecology is coral reefs. Being environmentally sustainable, natural structures like coral reefs have recently drawn a lot of attention as a means of reducing the flow energy. The absence of scientific validations on the potential of coral reefs in reducing high-energy flow limits engineering applications of coral reefs to the benefit of civilization. In this research, extensive experimental studies were carried out to investigate the capabilities of coral reefs, to reduce high-energy flows. To determine the high-energy wave reduction by coral reefs, the coral roughness coefficient along with the coral structure …

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Design Of Wythe Connectors For Concentrated Out-Of-Plane Loading Of Insulated Walls, Ammar Al-Maabreh, Fray F. Pozo, Marc Maguire Apr 2023

Design Of Wythe Connectors For Concentrated Out-Of-Plane Loading Of Insulated Walls, Ammar Al-Maabreh, Fray F. Pozo, Marc Maguire

Durham School of Architectural Engineering and Construction: Faculty Publications

Partially composite concrete insulated wall panels must be designed to handle different types of loading, including out-of-plane concentrated loads. Currently, there is a lack of information that describes and helps engineers analyze the mechanics of axial load transfer for insulated wall panels for concentrated out-of-plane loads that may occur from lifting, handling, or floor/roof reactions. Such loading generates axial and shear forces in the wythe connectors, making it important to choose the type and quantity of connectors in the design process. This paper aims to develop a better understanding of out-of-plane point load mechanics on concrete sandwich wall panels. A …

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An Inexpensive, Reproducible Method To Quantify Activated Sludge Foaming Potential: Validation Through Lab-Scale Studies And Year-Long Full-Scale Sampling Campaign, Grace K. Scarim, Emily Lou Lamartina, Kaushik Venkiteshwaran, Daniel Zitomer, Ryan J. Newton, Patrick J. Mcnamara Apr 2023

An Inexpensive, Reproducible Method To Quantify Activated Sludge Foaming Potential: Validation Through Lab-Scale Studies And Year-Long Full-Scale Sampling Campaign, Grace K. Scarim, Emily Lou Lamartina, Kaushik Venkiteshwaran, Daniel Zitomer, Ryan J. Newton, Patrick J. Mcnamara

Civil and Environmental Engineering Faculty Research and Publications

Activated sludge is a conventional treatment process for biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and total suspended solids (TSS) removal at water resource recovery facilities (WRRFs). Foaming events are a common operational issue in activated sludge and can lead to decreased treatment efficiency, maintenance issues, and potential environmental health risks. Stable foaming events are caused by biological and chemical drivers (i.e., microbes and surfactants) during the aeration process. However, foaming events are difficult to predict and quantify. We present an inexpensive and easy-to-use method that can be applied at WRRFs to quantify foaming potential. Subsequently, the method was applied over a year-long …

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Considerable Factors In Determining The Sustainability Benefits Of The Demolition Of An Existing Structure For A New Build And Of The Renovation Of An Existing Structure, Dev Boyd Hippenstiel Apr 2023

Considerable Factors In Determining The Sustainability Benefits Of The Demolition Of An Existing Structure For A New Build And Of The Renovation Of An Existing Structure, Dev Boyd Hippenstiel

Construction Management

The decision between whether to demolish or renovate a building comes down to which one will satisfy the owner’s needs and objectives while remaining within budget. This project will identify factors in determining sustainability benefits between a completely new construction project that demolishes the existing structure prior to rebuilding and a renovation project that reuses some or all of the existing structure. Research on construction data, interviews conducted with leading industry members, and journals that reported on both these strategies are presented. This project will examine considerations that reduce the demolition’s negative impact on the environment and improve the overall …

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Designing Safety Vests To Fit Women, Claire Peters Apr 2023

Designing Safety Vests To Fit Women, Claire Peters

Construction Management

This paper focuses on the design and construction of safety vests for women, particularly in XS and XXL sizes. Safety vests are an essential piece of protective equipment worn by individuals working in environments requiring high visibility for safety reasons. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Safety Equipment Association (ISEA) develop safety vest standards to ensure 360-degree visibility of workers, but these standards create limitations in manufacturer’s abilities to create a well-fitted vest for women of smaller stature, particularly in the sizes between XXS and S, as the required square inches of material result in a baggy …

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Drinking Water Contaminants: Bacteria, Bruce I. Dvorak, Becky O. Schuerman Apr 2023

Drinking Water Contaminants: Bacteria, Bruce I. Dvorak, Becky O. Schuerman

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering: Faculty Publications

Testing drinking water for fecal bacteria or Escherichia coli (E. coli) is commonly used as an indicator of the presence of pathogenic microorganisms. The presence of pathogenic (disease-causing) microorganisms is a concern when considering the safety of drinking water. Pathogenic microorganisms can cause flu-like systems, intestinal infections, dysentery, hepatitis, typhoid fever, cholera, and other illnesses.

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Application Of Image Processing In Soil Mechanics, Luke Knodel Apr 2023

Application Of Image Processing In Soil Mechanics, Luke Knodel

Senior Honors Theses

Whenever someone digs a hole in the ground or takes a relaxing walk on the beach, they directly interact with the soil. In its basic form, soil consists of solid, water, and air phases. Unlike water and metals, soil is a particulate media, and the relative proportion of the individual phases significantly influences its physical properties. Various studies have analyzed soil using image processing to determine its morphological properties. Research involving the digital processing of X-ray Computed Tomography (X-ray CT) images of soil to retrieve physically meaningful information is gaining recognition. This study investigates two-dimensional X-ray CT images of unsaturated …

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Serviceability Analysis And Feasibility Study Of Rooftop Pv System On Commercial Buildings In New York City, Daniel A. Shedo Apr 2023

Serviceability Analysis And Feasibility Study Of Rooftop Pv System On Commercial Buildings In New York City, Daniel A. Shedo

Master's Theses

Concrete Masonry Unit (CMU) blocks (Ballasts) to counterbalance an uplift wind pressure on Photovoltaic (PV) panels have been used widely. In contrast to mechanically attaching PV panels through penetration of a roof slab, the use of CMU blocks is preferred by many building owners, as penetrating and attaching the panels to a roof slab will pose a serious threat to the warranty of roof membranes, which typically last for 30 years. On the other hand, placing CMU blocks along with PV panels and other system components on a rooftop slab adds additional dead load, which may raise a concern regarding …

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Human Microbiome Transfer In The Built Environment Differs Based On Occupants, Objects, And Buildings, Andrew J. Hoisington, Christopher E. Stamper, Katherine L. Bates, Maggie A. Stanislawski, Michael C. Flux, Teodor T. Postolache, Christopher A. Lowry, Lisa A. Brenner Apr 2023

Human Microbiome Transfer In The Built Environment Differs Based On Occupants, Objects, And Buildings, Andrew J. Hoisington, Christopher E. Stamper, Katherine L. Bates, Maggie A. Stanislawski, Michael C. Flux, Teodor T. Postolache, Christopher A. Lowry, Lisa A. Brenner

Faculty Publications

Compared to microbiomes on other skin sites, the bacterial microbiome of the human hand has been found to have greater variability across time. To increase understanding regarding the longitudinal transfer of the hand microbiome to objects in the built environment, and vice versa, 22 participants provided skin microbiome samples from their dominant hands, as well as from frequently and infrequently touched objects in their office environments. Additional longitudinal samples from home environments were obtained from a subset of 11 participants. We observed stability of the microbiomes of both the hand and built environments within the office and home settings; however, …

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Investigating The Detriment Of Development Assistance: A Geopolitical Analysis Of Sino-Djibouti Relations Through The Lens Of China’S Belt And Road Initiative, Elizabeth Elenwo-Roger Apr 2023

Investigating The Detriment Of Development Assistance: A Geopolitical Analysis Of Sino-Djibouti Relations Through The Lens Of China’S Belt And Road Initiative, Elizabeth Elenwo-Roger

Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection

This research paper will evaluate Africa’s past with debt accumulation, focusing on the role of the Washington Consensus spearheaded by the Bretton Woods Institutions in its failed attempts to relieve the continent’s debt distresses and further aggravate Africa’s already fractured relationship with the West. It will highlight the goals of the Belt and Road Initiative, assessing China’s South-South cooperation approach to its relations with Djibouti and the Horn of Africa. Specifically, it will investigate claims of China engaging in debt-trap diplomacy and the extent to which this term infringes upon the agency of African leaders. The general research question investigates …

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Role Of Sediment Type, Concentration, And Salinity On Clay Flocs, Ryan Michael Johnson Apr 2023

Role Of Sediment Type, Concentration, And Salinity On Clay Flocs, Ryan Michael Johnson

Theses and Dissertations

Experiments were performed to study floc formation in water bodies. In particular, the study aimed to systematically identify effects of water depth, time, salinity, initial clay concentration, and clay type on floc formation and settling. Three sediment types were chosen for this research are Three sediment types were chosen for this research: silica powder, with particle sizes comparable to clay flocs, kaolin clay and bentonite clay. Silica was chosen as a control because it did not form flocs. Kaolin represented low activity clay; bentonite was chosen as the high activity clay. Experiments lasted up to 48 hours. Graduated cylinders were …

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Load Rating Evaluation Of Deteriorated Prestressed Channel Girders, Alexander Zane Henderson Apr 2023

Load Rating Evaluation Of Deteriorated Prestressed Channel Girders, Alexander Zane Henderson

Theses and Dissertations

The South Carolina Department of Transportation (SCDOT) is conducting a multi-year effort to load rate its inventory of over 9,400 bridges. This includes many bridges that are load posted due to potential structural considerations (e.g., outdated design loads, members whose capacity is difficult to assess, structural degradation). The number of load-posted bridges in South Carolina is expected to increase significantly due to recent efforts from SCDOT to assess the current state of bridge infrastructure. It is expected that the increased scrutiny may result in more load postings, which in turn may lead to restrictions on truck routes, potential bridge closures, …

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Speckle Development And Application In Uav-Based Digital Image Correlation For Transportation Infrastructure Monitoring And Assessment, Taylor Wyatt Apr 2023

Speckle Development And Application In Uav-Based Digital Image Correlation For Transportation Infrastructure Monitoring And Assessment, Taylor Wyatt

Theses and Dissertations

A critical aspect of civil infrastructure is structural health monitoring, of which digital image correlation (DIC) has been proven to be an effective and appropriate method. There is sufficient literature on the use of stationary DIC, but an unexplored aspect is DIC-equipped unmanned aircraft systems. It has been verified in University of South Carolina labs but has not been proved in a field environment. One of the challenges of field implementation is large scale speckle application. This work focusses on identifying and addressing challenges in bringing UAV-DIC technology from the lab to the field. This includes the development of optimized …

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Mclaughlin-Walsh Residence Hall Expansion, Rebecca Huang, Shanelle Smith Apr 2023

Mclaughlin-Walsh Residence Hall Expansion, Rebecca Huang, Shanelle Smith

Civil, Environmental and Sustainable Engineering Senior Theses

An expansion of McLaughlin-Walsh Residence at Santa Clara University was designed to provide additional housing accommodations to on-campus residents. The design included both the structural and geotechnical components. The proposed solution included a vertical expansion of the residence hall with the design of a podium to span over the existing structure to support an additional residential structure. The loads of the additional residential structure were estimated to complete the design of the podium structure. The podium was designed to support the estimated loads using reinforced concrete columns, steel beams, prefabricated trusses, and concrete on metal deck. The podium design was …

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South Lake Tahoe Fire Resiliency Project, Kelsi Rice, Wyatt Rich Apr 2023

South Lake Tahoe Fire Resiliency Project, Kelsi Rice, Wyatt Rich

Civil, Environmental and Sustainable Engineering Senior Theses

Our names are Kelsi Rice and Wyatt Rich. We are Seniors at Santa Clara University and are majoring in Civil, Sustainable and Environmental Engineering. Within our senior year at Santa Clara, it is a requirement that we complete a Senior Design Project. Our Senior Design Project is fire hardening the City of South Lake Tahoe’s (City) utility lines. The last few months we have been analyzing the City's current utility infrastructure and the potential for new utility services to be implemented throughout the City. We have conducted an alternatives analysis to determine that the City of South Lake Tahoe is …

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Using Thermal Remote Sensing To Quantify Impact Of Traffic On Urban Heat Islands During Covid, My-Thu Tran, Bo Yang Apr 2023

Using Thermal Remote Sensing To Quantify Impact Of Traffic On Urban Heat Islands During Covid, My-Thu Tran, Bo Yang

Mineta Transportation Institute

A three-month lockdown in the U.S. at the beginning of the COVID-19 outbreak in 2020 greatly reduced the traffic volume in many cities, especially large metropolitan areas such as the San Francisco Bay Area. This research explores the impact of transportation on climate change by using remote sensing technology and statistical analysis during the COVID-19 lockdown. Using thermal satellite data, this research measures the intensity of the urban heat island, the main driver for climate change during the urbanization process. The research team acquired morning and afternoon MODIS data in the same periods in 2019 before the pandemic and 2020 …

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Modeling And Evaluating Alternatives To Enhance Access To An Airport And Meet Future Expansion Needs, Srinivas S. Pulugurtha, Abimbola Ogungbire, Chirag Akbari Apr 2023

Modeling And Evaluating Alternatives To Enhance Access To An Airport And Meet Future Expansion Needs, Srinivas S. Pulugurtha, Abimbola Ogungbire, Chirag Akbari

Mineta Transportation Institute

The continued growth of air travel calls for the incessant construction effort at many airports and their surroundings. Thus, there is a need to determine how airports can better manage existing infrastructure to accommodate this growth. This study, therefore, focuses on (1) investigating how changes in transportation infrastructure have affected travel time reliability (TTR) of the surrounding road network within the airport vicinity over time, and, (2) exploring selected unconventional intersection designs and proposing new inbound/outbound access routes from the nearby major roads to the airport. The efficiency of road networks that surrounds large airports is discussed using Charlotte Douglas …

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Vibration Control Of A Two-Story Base-Isolated Building Using A New Tuned Mass Multi-Sliding Friction Damper, Mohsen Amjadian, Syed Muhammad Bilal Haider Apr 2023

Vibration Control Of A Two-Story Base-Isolated Building Using A New Tuned Mass Multi-Sliding Friction Damper, Mohsen Amjadian, Syed Muhammad Bilal Haider

Civil Engineering Faculty Publications

This paper studies the use of a new Tuned Mass Multi-Sliding Friction Damper (TMMSFD) to increase the damping capacity of seismic isolators installed on a two-story base-isolated building to limit their lateral deformations. The proposed TMMSFD consists of a set of several masses that are laterally attached to the superstructure floor through linear springs. These masses are placed on top of each other one by one and are allowed to slide with respect to each other during the earthquake. The bottom mass that carries the weight of upper masses is in contact with the superstructure floor. The damping of system …

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Investigation Of Corrosion Mechanism Of Ribbed Mild Steel Bars Coated With Magnesium Potassium Phosphate Cement Paste, Fan Zhang, John J. Myers, Wenyu Liao, Cun Hui, Hongyan Ma Mar 2023

Investigation Of Corrosion Mechanism Of Ribbed Mild Steel Bars Coated With Magnesium Potassium Phosphate Cement Paste, Fan Zhang, John J. Myers, Wenyu Liao, Cun Hui, Hongyan Ma

Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering Faculty Research & Creative Works

This Study Investigated the Anti-Corrosion Performance of Magnesium Potassium Phosphate Cement (MKPC) Paste Applied to the Surface of Ribbed Mild Steel Bars – Which Was Exposed to Simulated Accelerated Corrosive Environment. Four Electrochemical Approaches Were Used Including Open-Circuit Potential (OCP), Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscope (EIS), Polarization Resistance (PR) and Potentiodynamic Polarization (PDP) over a Period of 5376 H (224 Days). Moreover, Visual Inspection, Optical Microscope, and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) Were Used to Assess the Extent of Corrosion on the Samples. to Understand the Mechanism of Corrosion Protection of the Coating System, X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) …

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Establishment Of Wildflower Islands To Enhance Roadside Health, Ecological Value, And Aesthetics Phase Ii, Jackson Ebbers, Heidi L. Hillhouse, John A. Guretsky, Thomas J. Weissling Mar 2023

Establishment Of Wildflower Islands To Enhance Roadside Health, Ecological Value, And Aesthetics Phase Ii, Jackson Ebbers, Heidi L. Hillhouse, John A. Guretsky, Thomas J. Weissling

Nebraska Department of Transportation: Research Reports

No abstract provided.

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Semi-Annual Progress Report #13, Missouri University Of Science And Technology Mar 2023

Semi-Annual Progress Report #13, Missouri University Of Science And Technology

Semi-Annual Progress Reports

No abstract provided.

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Housing In Kibera's Soweto East Informal Settlement, Kenya: A Socio-Technical Evaluation, Tiernan Brennan Mar 2023

Housing In Kibera's Soweto East Informal Settlement, Kenya: A Socio-Technical Evaluation, Tiernan Brennan

Masters

In 2003, the Kenya Slum Upgrading Programme (KENSUP) was launched in partnership with UN-Habitat and the Government of Kenya (GoK) to improve the livelihoods of people in Kenya by 2020 through the provision of improved shelter, infrastructure, land tenure and income generation. Kibera is an informal settlement in Kenya where varying housing typologies and traditional vernacular-style designs coexist with modern housing units. Soweto East was one of eighteen villages located in Kibera selected for KENSUP’s first major housing development initiative. Soweto East was selected from a screening of several housing projects that could be subjected to a socio-technical (STE). The …

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Characterizing And Modeling The Impact Photorepair Conditions Have On Parameters Governing The Regrowth Of Escherichia Coli After Uvc Irradiation, And Investigating Potential Mitigation Strategies, Andrea J. Martinez Ballen Mar 2023

Characterizing And Modeling The Impact Photorepair Conditions Have On Parameters Governing The Regrowth Of Escherichia Coli After Uvc Irradiation, And Investigating Potential Mitigation Strategies, Andrea J. Martinez Ballen

LSU Master's Theses

Ultraviolet disinfection has been used to treat water and wastewater for decades. Previous studies highlight the significance of disinfection conditions and attempt to model bacterial regrowth behavior according to disinfection dosing parameters. The emergence of light-emitting diode (LED) technology provides the ability to further explore bacterial repair methods after UV disinfection, which has been a growing concern within the UV community. However, it is necessary to also consider post-disinfection conditions to model the regrowth patterns of bacterial organisms more accurately. By varying reactivation wavelengths, and their respective intensities, experiments using Escherichia coli ATCC 15597 revealed how these parameters impact the …

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Urban Mass Transit: New York State And The Mta Sustainability Initiatives On Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction, Omosehin Moyebi Mar 2023

Urban Mass Transit: New York State And The Mta Sustainability Initiatives On Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction, Omosehin Moyebi

Sustainability Research & Practice Seminar Presentations

Dr. Omosehin Moyebi, Health - Urban Mass Transit: New York State and the MTA Sustainability Initiatives on Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction

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Sustainable Management Of Dams And Reservoirs In North Dakota: Sediment Transport Characterization, Adewale Ajao, Yeo Howe Lim Mar 2023

Sustainable Management Of Dams And Reservoirs In North Dakota: Sediment Transport Characterization, Adewale Ajao, Yeo Howe Lim

Civil Engineering Posters and Presentations

Selected reservoirs in the state of North Dakota was surveyed to assess their storage capacity, sedimentation characteristics, water quality parameters, and check for leakage. The purpose of the study is to understand the dynamic of reservoir sedimentation in North Dakota and the effect on its resiliency and sustainability. The HYCAT, which is an autonomous surface vehicle, was interfaced with a side scan sonar and global positioning system. The side scan sonar soundings at a determined frequency was used to measure reservoir bed level and deposited sediments while the positioning system would provide information along the grid lines. Additionally, this bathymetry …

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Peak And Differential Temperature Determination Of Drilled Shafts, Amanda A. Lewis Mar 2023

Peak And Differential Temperature Determination Of Drilled Shafts, Amanda A. Lewis

USF Tampa Graduate Theses and Dissertations

The term “mass concrete” characterizes a specific concrete condition that typically requires unique considerations to mitigate extreme temperature effects on a structure. Mass concrete has historically been defined by the physical dimensions of a “mass”-ive concrete element with the intent of identifying when differential temperatures may induce early-onset cracking, leading to reduced service life. More recently, in addition to differential temperature considerations, extreme upper temperature limits have been imposed by the American Concrete Institute to prevent long-term concrete degradation. Studies dating back to 2007 show shafts as small as 48 inches in diameter can exceed both differential and peak temperature …

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Image-Based Corrosion Detection In Ancillary Structures, Amrita Das, Eberechi Ichi, Sattar Dorafshan Mar 2023

Image-Based Corrosion Detection In Ancillary Structures, Amrita Das, Eberechi Ichi, Sattar Dorafshan

Civil Engineering Faculty Publications

Ancillary structures are essential for highways’ safe operationality but are mainly prone to environmental corrosion. The traditional way of inspecting ancillary structures is manned inspection, which is laborious, time-consuming, and unsafe for inspectors. In this paper, a novel image processing technique was developed for autonomous corrosion detection of in-service ancillary structures. The authors successfully leveraged corrosion features in the YCbCr color space as an alternative to the conventional red–green–blue (RGB) color space. The proposed method included a preprocessing operation including contrast adjustment, histogram equalization, adaptive histogram equalization, and optimum value determination of brightness. The effect of preprocessing was evaluated against …

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