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Pacing Strategies In The 200 Yard Freestyle By Collegiate Men, Peter Robinson, Scott P. Mclean

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

ABSTRACT

Examination of components of a 200 yd freestyle race may provide useful information for understanding how pacing strategy contributes to successful performance. PURPOSE: To compare 50-yd splits of a 200-yd freestyle race in higher performing and lower performing swimmers to assess if pacing strategy differs between groups. METHODS: An ex post facto design was used employed to create a dataset of 200 yd freestyle results. Split times were generated for each 50 yard segment of a 200 yd race for two performance groups of swimmers; the first and last four finalists in eight conference championships each for NCAA Division …

Effects Of Fatty Acid Composition In A High Fat Diet On Skeletal Muscle Mitochondrial Content, Isaac N. Gandara, Shaan Naughton, Lannie O'Keefe, Anna Simcocks, Deanne Hryciw, Michael Mathai, Andrew Mcainch, Sudip Bajpeyi

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

High fat diets (HFD) have been shown to impair skeletal muscle mitochondrial content and function, resulting in impaired lipid oxidation and insulin resistance. However, it is not well understood how the type of fatty acid (mixed fats, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA; predominately oleic acid) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA; primarily linoleic acid)) affects mitochondrial content. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of HFD, differing in the major type of fatty acids, on skeletal muscle mitochondrial content. METHODS: Male Sprague Dawley rats were fed a Western-style (21% by weight; 41% total energy) HFD for …

A Family History Of Type 2 Diabetes Does Not Impact Skeletal Muscle Lipid Content, Jasmin Jenkins, Sudip Bajpeyi

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

A high intramyocellular lipid (IMCL) has been associated not only with insulin resistance, obesity, and type 2 diabetes; but also in insulin sensitive endurance trained athletes – known as “athlete’s paradox”. A family history of type 2 diabetes (FH+) has been shown as a risk factor for the development of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes (T2D). However, it is unclear whether a FH+ affects IMCL content and exercise induced changes in IMCL when compared to those without a family history of type 2 diabetes (FH-). PURPOSE: The purpose of this study were 1) to compare IMCL content between …

Walking With Leg Blood Flow Restriction: Wide-Rigid Cuffs Vs. Narrow-Elastic Bands, Sten Stray-Gundersen, Savannah V. Wooten, Hirofumi Tanaka

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Blood flow restriction (BFR) training has become a popular form of exercise in recent years. The concept is that light-load exercise with BFR elicits similar adaptations achieved with heavy-load exercise. Walking exercise in combination with pressurized wide-rigid (WR) cuffs has been shown to elicit higher cardiac workload and a vascular dysfunction due presumably to reperfusion injury to the endothelium. In contrast, narrow-elastic (NE) BFR bands may elicit different hemodynamic effects, as the limb is able to increase in diameter with increased blood flow accompanying exercise. PURPOSE: To compare two distinct forms of BFR bands during light-intensity exercise on cardiovascular …

The Influence Of Strength, Torque, And Range Of Motion On Injury Rates In Distance Runners – A Meta-Analytic Review, Angela Martin, Bryce Groshek, Joseph Hernandez, Leroy Trujillo, Frank Wyatt, Jason B. Winchester

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Running for distance is not exclusive to athletes, but inclusive to everyday individuals as a method of aerobic conditioning, and due to its convenience compared to other methods of exercise. Although there are many well established health benefits, injuries are common with participation, with estimates ranging from 6.8-59 per 1000 hours of running along with a high rate of recurrence. PURPOSE: To analyze the effects of performance variables on injury rates in distance runners. METHODS: A meta-analysis review was conducted to investigate differences in strength, torque, and range of motion in injured versus uninjured distance runners. Data over …

Attenuated Pulsatile Load During Metaboreflex Activation Is Associated With Excess Adiposity In Dynapenic Postmenopausal Women, Arun Maharaj, Salvador Jaime, Stephen Fischer, Arturo Figueroa

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

The age-related loss in muscle strength (dynapenia) is associated with elevated blood pressure (BP) and fat mass (FM). Aortic pulse pressure (PP), rather than brachial PP, more closely relates to cardiovascular events because it represents left ventricular pulsatile load, which is particularly important in older women. Purpose: To examine the impact of dynapenia and adiposity on aortic BP responses to metaboreflex activation (post-exercise muscle ischemia, PEMI) in postmenopausal women. Methods: 71 postmenopausal women [(dynapenic, n=41, 57±1 years), (non-dynapenic, n=30, 59±1 years)] were included in this study. FM, percent body fat (BF%) and percent lean mass (LM%) were measured using Dual …

Lower Leg Lean Mass Is Associated With Reduced Pulse Pressure Amplification In Postmenopausal Women, Stephen M. Fischer, Salvador J. Jaime, Arun Maharaj, Arturo Figueroa

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Sarcopenia, the age-related loss of skeletal muscle mass, has been associated with increased arterial stiffness (pulse wave velocity, PWV). Lower leg muscle mass has been associated with increased brachial-ankle PWV (baPWV), a measure of systemic arterial stiffness. Pulse pressure (PP) is lower in the aorta compared to the brachial artery (PP amplification, PPA), in healthy individuals. PPA decreases with aging due to increased aortic stiffening. Lower PPA is an independent predictor of cardiovascular death. It is unknown whether leg muscle mass is associated with lower PPA in postmenopausal women. Purpose: To examine relationships between leg lean mass (LegLM), PPA, and …

Muscular Contractions Facilitate Systemic Circulation Of Microrna That Impact Cancer, Chelsea G. Goodenough, Dustin A. Therrien, Branden L. Nguyen, Jessica M. Cardin, Steven E. Riechman, Kelli K. Kochan, Penny K. Riggs, James D. Fluckey

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Currently there is an evolving appreciation for exercise- combined therapies prescribed by clinicians for breast cancer patients; however there remains a of lack explanation of biological regulation of exercise on breast cancer, and the role that contracting skeletal muscle, the mechanistic machinery of exercise, has in the documented improved prognosis of exercising breast cancer patients. MicroRNAs (miRNA) are small non-coding RNAs found in abundance in skeletal muscle that have been proposed as possible myokines. Exogenous miRNA have post-transcriptional abilities allowing them to act as negative gene regulators of gene expression such as those in the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) …

Low Intensity Exercise Has Greater Acute Vascular Benefits For Reducing Arterial Stiffness In Hot Compared To Neutral Conditions, Kyleigh N. Allie, Julianna Kilpatrick, Paolo Salvador, Eric Rivas

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Both exercise and passive heating cause acute reductions in blood pressure. It is unknown if exercise-heat stress causes likewise reductions or greater when combined. PURPOSE: This project tested the hypothesis that the resting and exercise-heat stress cause hypotension and improvements in arterial stiffness. METHODS: Seven healthy active (7 day activity: 9887±3564 steps/day; VO2max: 52±10 mL/kg/min ) subjects (5M/2F, 24±9y, 171±6cm, 68±7kg) completed a 30 min baseline rest followed by 60 min at an exercise intensity of their choice that represented their perceived exertion (RPE) of 12 (between light and somewhat hard) on a 20-point rating scale while being blinded to …

The Effects Of A Single Bout Of Endurance Exercise On Glucose Transporter-4 (Glut-4) Content, Manuel Gomez, Sudip Bajpeyi

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Glucose Transporter protein-4 (GLUT-4) is considered the predominant glucose transporter in skeletal muscle. Exercise has been shown to increase glucose uptake and GLUT-4 protein content in skeletal muscle following muscle contraction. PURPOSE: To determine the acute effects of a single bout of moderate intensity endurance exercise on skeletal muscle GLUT-4 content. METHODS: 10 healthy male volunteers (age: 24.4 ± 1.3 years; BMI 23.16 ± 0.60 kg/m²) participated in a single bout of endurance exercise on a cycle ergometer at 65% maximal aerobic capacity (VO_2max) for 1.5 – 2.0 hours (650kcal). Muscle biopsies were obtained from the vastus …

Intra-Day Variation In Lean Body Mass And Skeletal Muscle Mass Measures: A Pilot Study, Noe Deanda, Jordan B. Wainwright, Jeb F. Struder, Daniel Newmire

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Lean body mass (LBM) and its estimated measure of skeletal muscle mass (SKMM) is ~30 to ~40 % of total body weight. Measuring SKMM is an important assessment for both exercise and nutritional research. There is biological variation in dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) estimates related to subject presentation, changes in tissue hydration, as well as GI tract contents. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to examine how normal activities (e.g. eating, sleeping, exercise) influence LBM and SKMM measures using DXA in college students. METHODS: (Mean ± SEM; n = 42; Age: 26.9 ± 0.4 y; ht: 169.2 …

A Clinical Teaching Of Hamstring Strains, Josey Meyer, Chuck Ruot, Lindsay Edwards

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

CLINICAL PRESENTATION & EXAM: A patient with a hamstring strain will have pain and tenderness on his or her posterior thigh. The patient may also complain of difficulty extending the knee and sitting comfortably. Depending on the severity of the injury, there could be bruising and swelling in the thigh area causing a loss of hamstring strength. If one of the hamstring muscles is completely torn; the patient would feel a “popping” sensation upon injury. Thus, the patient would be unable to use the injured leg. A hamstring strain typically comes from muscle overload during an eccentric contraction. A …

Exercise Leads To Increase In Smaller Lipid Droplet Morphology In Peripheral Region Of Muscle Fiber, Victoria Rosas

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

In a previous study, we have shown that high fat overfeeding results in decreased smaller lipid droplet density in the peripheral region of skeletal muscle fiber. This decrease was associated with high fat overfeeding induced weight gain and insulin resistance. However, it is not clear whether an acute bout of exercise (elevated fat oxidation state) affects lipid droplet size. PURPOSE: To determine the effects of a single bout of endurance exercise on skeletal muscle lipid content and lipid droplet size. METHODS: Ten healthy male volunteers (Mean ± SEM; age: 23.11 ± 0.98; BMI: 23.27 ± 0.50 kg/m²) participated …

The Impact Of Kinetic Energy Factors On Pitching Performance Of Ncaa Baseball Players, Blake George, Andrew A. Wolfe, Joe W. Priest, Randy Martin, Matt Laurent, Kayla Peak

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Kinetic energy is established by a mathematical equation involving the mass of an object and the speed at which the object travels, and is a relevant measure in regards to athletic performance due to frequent transfer of energy during sport (i.e. athlete to athlete (tackling), athlete to object (throwing), object to object (tennis/baseball hitting)). Previous research has utilized the 60-yd run-shuttle to examine kinetic energy factors (k-factor) of difference sports, recognizing significant differences in energy capability between gender, sport teams, and individual sport positions. The utilization of k-factor, pertaining to baseball, has distinguished significant positional (i.e. infielder, outfielder, catcher, pitcher) …

Persistent Neurovascular Coupling Dysregulation During Subacute Recovery Phase Following Concussion, Sydney H. Lyng, Emma-Kate Brown, Tonia Sabo, Kathleen R. Bell, Sushmita Purkayastha

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Concussion diagnosis is characterized by a lack of objective markers, as there is a paucity of better understanding of the pathophysiology. Neurovascular coupling (NVC), an important factor in cerebral blood flow (CBF) regulation, is a tight temporal relationship between neuronal activity and CBF in order to meet cerebral metabolism. PURPOSE: To examine NVC on Day-3, Day-21, and Day-90 following a concussion in comparison to the non-injured healthy controls. METHODS: Twenty-nine male and female collegiate athletes (20±1years) sustaining a sports-related concussion were enrolled in a longitudinal study. For the concussed athletes, data were obtained on Day-3 (N=29), Day-21 (N=26), …

Effects Of Exercise Modes To Improve Insulin Sensitivity And Fat Oxidation In Obese And Patients With Type 2 Diabetes – A Meta-Analysis., Mario Garcia, Sudip Bajpeyi

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Exercise is effective in improving insulin sensitivity (IS) and resting fat oxidation in an obese and population with type 2 diabetic (T2D). However, most Americans do not adhere to the ACSM recommended exercise guidelines. The effectiveness of different exercise modes to improve IS and resting fat oxidation in obese and T2D individuals is unknown. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare the 1) effects of aerobic, resistance, and combination exercise training and 2) to determine the role of volume and intensity (aerobic) and repetitions and sets (resistance) on exercise induced improvements in IS and resting lipid oxidation …

Acute Effects Of A Single Session Of Hot Yoga On Caloric Expenditure, Range Of Motion, And Metabolism, Kalyan Chaliki, Domenica Delgado, David Dong, Michael Moreno, Joshua Lee, Patrick Mcculloch, Joshua Harris, Bradley Lambert

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Performing yoga in a heated environment is an increasingly popular exercise option among the population and is purported increase range of motion (ROM), caloric expenditure, and aerobic fitness. Despite this, there exists a gap in the literature regarding hot yoga. PURPOSE: To compare an acute session of yoga performed in heated (HC) versus room temperature conditions (RT) with regards to changes in ROM, oxygen consumption, caloric expenditure, and biomarkers related to exercise stress and inflammation. METHODS: Sixteen experienced yoga practitioners (F=14, M=2; 41±14yr, 22.8±2.2 kg/m²) completed a 1-hour yoga exercise protocol using a standardized Bikram yoga sequence in …

A Comparison Of High-Intensity Interval Exercise And Continuous Moderate-Intensity Exercise On Postprandial Metabolism: A Pilot Analysis., David J. Buckley, Broderick L. Dickerson, James R. Rowe Jr

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Both moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE) (performed for ≥ 1 hour) and high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) (performed for ≤ 30 minutes) has been reported to reduce the magnitude of postprandial lipemia and glycemia. It is unclear if low-volume MICE and HIIE performed for a similar duration and expending similar amounts of energy would have a comparable or different effect on postprandial lipemia or glycemia. PURPOSE: Examine the effects of low-volume MICE and HIIE on postprandial glucose, insulin, and triglyceride (TG) concentration following a mixed meal (MM) ingested at 0.5 hours and 15.5 hours post-exercise. METHODS: Recreationally active men (n = …

Despite Symptom Resolution Dynamic Cerebral Autoregulation Is Impaired In Collegiate Athletes Following Concussion, Emma-Kate Brown, Sydney H. Lyng, Laurence J. Ryan, Kathleen R. Bell Md, Sushmita Purkayastha

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Concussions are among some of the most prevalent sports-related injuries, however, the pathophysiology of the injury is still poorly understood. Studies have consistently reported deficits in cerebral blood flow (CBF) following concussions, suggesting impairments in CBF regulation. PURPOSE: To examine dynamic cerebral autoregulation (dCA) in collegiate athletes on day-3, day-21, and day-90 following a concussion and compare them with non-injured controls. METHODS: Twenty-seven male and female athletes (20±1 years) diagnosed with a sports-related concussion were enrolled in the prospective cohort study. For the concussed athletes, data was collected on days 3, 21, and 90 following the injury. A …

The Effect Of The Menstrual Cycle On Hemoglobin Mass, Melissa Keller, Sophie Lalande

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

The impact of the menstrual cycle on oxygen-carrying capacity remains equivocal. Previous studies reported either reductions or no significant changes in hemoglobin concentration during the follicular phase when compared to the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Changes in plasma volume associated with fluctuating estrogen and progesterone levels likely contribute to the variations in hemoglobin concentration observed throughout the menstrual cycle. Thus, measures of hemoglobin concentration do not accurately represent the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. Hemoglobin mass represents a more direct measure of oxygen-carrying capacity. However, the impact of menstrual blood loss on hemoglobin mass remains unknown. Purpose: To …

Validity Of Body Volume Estimates From Infrared 3-Dimensional Scanning And Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry As Compared To Air Displacement Plethysmography, Marqui Benavides, Michael Moore, Jacob Dellinger, Claire Underwood, Tyler Dierolf, Brian Adamson, Grant M. Tinsley

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Traditional methods of estimating body volume (BV) such as hydrostatic weighing and air-displacement plethysmography (ADP) could theoretically be replaced using BV estimates obtained by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) or infrared 3-dimensional (3D) scanning devices. Multiple 3D scanning technologies have recently become popularized, including scanners that acquire data through pattern deformations caused by the projected light over the 3D object (i.e., structured light [SL] scanners) or by calculating depth from the time it takes reflected photons to reach the scanner’s image sensor (i.e. time of flight [ToF] scanners). While these 3D scanning technologies currently predict body composition based primarily on circumference …

The Effects Of Pre- And Post-Rehabilitation Physical Training Protocol On Anterior Cruciate Ligament (Acl) Progress, Peter Beitia, Ashley Schneider, Marvin Sublett, Zacharias Papadakis

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

CASE HISTORY: A 32-year old male presented a left anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tear. Past history revealed a right ACL reconstruction which happened ten years earlier. The left ACL injury occurred during soccer while pivoting under normal climate conditions and was a non-contact injury. He reported a lack of stability and localized lateral knee pain. The patient was advised and agreed on participating in 6 weeks of pre-surgical rehabilitation. The patient used cryotherapy modalities for pain and inflammation control; there was no use of medication. The patient underwent ACL reconstruction with a hamstring tendon graft in Brazil followed by …

Silicon Ions Enhance Myogenic Differentiation In C2c12 Skeletal Muscle Cells, Sara Peper, Kamal Awad, Jian Huang, Leticia Brotto, Pranesh Aswath, Marco Brotto, Venu Varanasi

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

The regeneration of bone and muscle tissue following musculoskeletal injuries is essential in sports medicine in order to restore function and prevent chronic musculoskeletal disorders related to physical inactivity. According to data collected by the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons from 2012 to 2014, 8.3% (approximately 2.6 million people) of the adult population in the United States received treatment for musculoskeletal injuries, costing an aggregate total of $213 billion dollars. Recent regenerative musculoskeletal research suggests that the restoration of function and structure for normal physical activity is dependent on the synergy of regeneration processes found in bone and muscle tissue. …

Psychological Impact Of Strongman Training, Joseph B. Eberhardt, Jeb F. Struder, Heather E. Webb

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

High intensity exercise has been shown to decrease stress and tension, increase energy and generally show greater improvements in mood when compared to lower intensity exercise. However, these findings have primarily been shown to occur as a result of longer duration aerobic exercise, while the impact of resistance training has had more mixed results. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to investigate the after the effect of a Strongman-type exercise (Farmers walk) on measures of anxiety, perceived exertion, and affect. Methods: Fourteen subjects (mean age ± SE = 21.6 yrs. ± 0.45; height = 172.53 cm ± 2.34; weight …

Comparisons Of Portable Metabolic Sensors During Outdoor Cycling, Darrel Woods, Katherine Costello, Alexander Toulouse, Patrick R. Davis

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Wearable technology has increased in prevalence and in the ability to monitor health related data. Additionally, the ability to record training data through various sensors has become essential in developing highly personalized training programs. Metabolic measurements have typically been confined to laboratory settings, but portable metabolic carts make the collection of these metrics in real world conditions possible. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare measurements of VO₂ from two different portable metabolic carts, a new consumer focused cart (A) and a research grade cart (B), in outdoor cycling under steady state conditions. METHODS: A …

A Wearable Garment To Mitigate Low Back Pain In Astronauts, Curtis Neeld, Miranda Moore, Alexis Quintana, Audra Romans, Arianne Scheller, Charles Swieczkowski, Nicholas A. Levine, Brandon R. Rigby

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

The microgravity environment of space is known to cause a wide array of adverse physiological effects on the bodies of astronauts. Among these effects, low back pain due to space adaptation is commonly reported by astronauts. In fact, this pain, caused primarily by atrophy of the erector spinae musculature, has the highest incidence rate among all musculoskeletal-related conditions reported by this population while in space. Low back pain and the consequences of other medical conditions may become magnified as the duration of missions increases over the next few decades. Therefore, determining methods of preventing and mitigating the deleterious effects of …

Hemodynamic And Pressor Responses To Combination Of Yoga And Blood Flow Restriction, Savannah V. Wooten, Sten Stray-Gundersen, Hirofumi Tanaka

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Blood flow restriction (BFR) training has been increasingly incorporated into a more common activity of daily exercise (e.g., yoga). However, BFR may increase blood pressure and myocardial oxygen demand by augmenting vascular resistance. Yoga is characterized by systemic isometric exercises and accompanied by marked pressor responses. This raises the concern of exaggerated cardiovascular responses when yoga is performed with BFR. Purpose: To determine the impact of a combination of yoga and BFR on cardiovascular responses. Methods: Twenty young healthy participants (M =10, F=10) performed 20 yoga poses with and without BFR bands placed on both legs. Beat by beat blood …

Blood Pressure, Body Composition, And Plasma Lipids Are Not Related To Indices Of Vascular Health, Jason Lytle Mr., Karina L. Wilson, Sean T. Stanelle, Steven E. Martin, Stephen F. Crouse

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Blood pressure, body composition and plasma lipoprotein concentrations are important markers for cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. PURPOSE: To examine potential relationships between blood pressure, body composition, plasma lipoprotein concentrations and indices of vascular health as assessed with carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (PWV) and flow mediated dilation (FMD). METHODS: Fourteen male subjects (age 32 ± 13 yrs, height 177.6 ± 6.6 cm, weight 83.3 ± 9.0 kg, lean mass 61.7 ± 6.3 kg, fat mass 18.4 ± 6.8 kg) volunteered for lab testing as part of a health assessment program, which included resting blood pressure, dual energy x-ray absorptiometry …

Bilateral Lean Mass And Dynamic Balance Asymmetry In Collegiate Athletes, Guadalupe Gabriela Herrera, Vipa Bernhardt

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Laterality, or lateral dominance may lead to asymmetry in muscle mass and strength, which in turn could lead to differences in stability and balance. Muscular asymmetry and dynamic balance asymmetry have been independently linked with increased injury risk. For example, athletes with >4cm anterior reach distance differences (ΔARD) were found to be at significantly higher risk to incur injuries. PURPOSE: However, it is unknown if there is an association between muscle mass asymmetry and dynamic balance. Nor is it known if these factors change throughout the sports’ seasonal periods (i.e., off-, pre-, and post-season). The purpose of this preliminary …

Body Esteem In College Students: The Influence Of Psychosocial And Demographic Variables, Jessica Gonzalez, Isabel Soto, Zavina Gonzalez, Chelsea K. Duncan, Brian E. Menaker, Amber M. Shipherd

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Level of physical activity, BMI, and various psychosocial factors have been found to influence body esteem. Most body esteem research focuses on Caucasians, necessitating examination of the impact of these variables on body esteem in other ethnicities. PURPOSE: To examine the effects of psychosocial and demographic variables (e.g. media usage, peer/family influences, degree of internalization, perfectionism, level of physical activity, and BMI) on body esteem in students at a Hispanic serving institution. METHODS: Eighty-four participants, predominantly identifying as Hispanic (n = 64), completed measures of demographic and psychosocial variables. Participants also completed body esteem instruments before and after …