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The Effects Of A Resisted Push Or Pull On Acceleration Sprint Time, Jayda Simmons, Casi Helbig

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Resistive sprinting is among many of the techniques used to aid in improving running mechanics. Proper running mechanics can aid in speeding up the acceleration phase. The acceleration phase involves the first 10-15 meters of a run before hitting the top speed phase. The resistive equipment used by coaches and trainers varies, ranging from parachutes to sleds. For this study the sled was the technique being investigated. The sled can be used to improve running techniqe both through pushing and pulling. PURPOSE: The purpose of the study was to determine which resistive running method, sled push or sled pull, …

Effects Of Pulsatile Exercise-Induced Shear Stress On Enos, Sod, Vcam-1, And Icam-1 Mrna Expression Of Human Carotid Artery Endothelial Cells, Francisco Morales-Acuna, Daniel Conde, Manuel Amador, Alvaro N. Gurovich

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Exercise-induced endothelial shear stress (ESS) has been proposed as a molecular mechanism that regulates the expression of genes involved in the protection against atherosclerosis. However, research on this topic has not considered the pulsatile nature of blood flow for in vivo ESS estimations. PURPOSE: to analyze the effect of pulsatile exercise-induced ESS on endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), superoxide dismutase (SOD), vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) mRNA expression of human carotid artery endothelial cells. METHODS: A reverse translational approach was employed for this study. First, an in vivo assessment, a total …

The Acute Effects Of Different Squat Intensities On Vertical Jump Performance, Andrew R. Hill, Daniel L. Laudermilk, Soon-Mi Choi

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Post activation potentiation (PAP) is defined as a short-term improvement in performance as a result of using a resistance exercise. The phenomenon of PAP has been shown to acutely increase athletic performance with back squats as an effective modality. PURPOSE: This study investigated acute effects of different back squat intensities on the countermovement vertical jump (CMJ). METHODS: Participants were 13 to 18-yr-old healthy male (n=8) and female (n=3) who participated in regular resistance training for at least 6 months and have played in a University Interscholastic League (UIL) within the past 6 months. One Repetition Maximum (1-RM) was measured within …

Case Presentation Of Repeated Hamstring Tear, Ana P. Castillo, Tal Amasay, Kyanna J. Pastore

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

CASE HISTORY: The patient is a 25-year-old collegiate soccer player who suffered three hamstring strains in his left leg between the months of June and November 2018. Prior to transferring to the current university, the athlete tore his hamstring during practice with his former team. At his current university, he has experienced two more tears. The first injury occurred in a soccer game, when going for a volley kick on a high served soccer ball. Athlete collapsed grabbing at his hamstring. Athlete’s pain was located on the mid distal aspect of the hamstring (bicep femoris). Post injury, the athlete …

Effects Of Caffeine Dose Timing On The Time-Course Of Diuresis During Sodium-Aided Hyperhydration, Phillip D. Wickenheiser, Shelby Greene, Elizaveta Roslanova, Dave Morris

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

When used alone, both caffeine and sodium-aided hyperhydration (SAH) can be ergogenic. Caffeine, when used with SAH, promotes diuresis, but hyperhydration can be achieved, albeit at lower levels than with SAH alone. In previous caffeine and SAH work, caffeine induced diuresis occurred only within 15 min of consumption of a bolus of caffeine, NaCl, and H₂O. This suggests that caffeine-induced diuresis may occur for only 15 min after its consumption, and/or that the diuretic effect of caffeine is dependent on hydration levels. Caffeine has been shown to be ergogenic when taken as little as 5 min before exercise; …

Comparison Of Acute Cardiometabolic Responses In A 7-Minute Body Weight Circuit To A 7-Minute Hiit Cycle Protocol, Cruz Armas, Robert J. Kowalsky Jr, Christopher M. Hearon

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Many smartphone applications available promote exercise engagement, specifically in short bouts of time. One such application “The 7-minute workout challenge” promotes a brief exercise bout, however details on the potential cardiometabolic health benefit is lacking. Purpose:To investigate the acute cardiometabolic responses of a 7-minute body-weight resistance exercise circuit (HICE) compared to a 7-minute high intensity interval training cycle protocol (HIIE). Methods: Apparently healthy and active young adults (N=12, 50% Female, 24.0±3.4 yr, BMI: 28.1±6.4 kg/m²) were enrolled in a randomized crossover study (HICE vs HIIE). The 12 HICE exercises were 30 seconds each using a standardized cadence, …

Investigating The Use Of Vibration Platform And Blood Flow Restriction As A Warm-Up Procedure, Ricardo Parra, Jovanna Bonilla, Elda Padilla, Laura Rodriguez, Naomi Cardenas, Murat Karabulut

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Blood Flow Restriction (BFR) training is a novel form of exercise that is emerging as an alternative to traditional resistance training. The research on BFR training as a warm up is limited. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to observe the combined effect of a whole body vibration (WBV) warm up and Blood Flow Restriction (BFR) on muscle temperature, flexibility, vertical jump height, and estimated VO2max. METHODS: Nineteen subjects (8 males and 11 females; Mean ± STDEV age = 24.21± 3.47 years; height = 166.94± 8.82 cm) completed the study, which involved performing a warm-up protocol under …

Age-Related Differences In Vertical Jump Power And Muscle Size And Quality Of The Vastus Lateralis, Ahalee C. Cathey, Chinonye C. Agu-Udemba, Eric J. Sobolewski, Brennan J. Thompson, Ty B. Palmer

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Previous studies have reported that decreases in muscle size and quality of the vastus lateralis (VL) may contribute to the lower vertical jump power observed in old compared to young males. However, we are aware of no previous studies that have examined the contribution of VL muscle size and quality to age-related power differences in females, nor have there been any studies that examined these differences between young, middle, and older age groups. PURPOSE: To determine the effects of age on vertical jump power and muscle size (cross-sectional area [CSA]) and quality (echo intensity [EI]) of the VL in young, …

Changes In Health And Physical Fitness Parameters After 6 Months Of High-Intensity Group Exercise In Firefighters: Preliminary Data, Matthew L. Sokoloski, Ryan A. Gordon, Gena D. Guerin, Isaac F. Rowland, Emily L. Zumbro, C Ryan Bachik, B Rhett Rigby

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

The physical demands of firefighting require the men and women employed in this profession to be in optimal physical condition to perform their jobs proficiently, as well as to mitigate the risk of injury. Every year, the city of Addison, TX, budgets many thousands of dollars to the compensation plan for first responders. Most of the funding is used for rehabilitation services due to work related injuries. PURPOSE: While many of these injuries are unavoidable due to the inherent risks of the profession, ensuring proper physical fitness is one of the most effective methods to reduce many of these impairments. …

Case Presentation For Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis (Pvns), Maria G. Zamora, Tal Amasay, Matthew L. Santos-Vitorino

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

CASE HISTORY: The patient is a 21 years old male collegiate baseball player who suffered an acute pain in his right knee during practice. The athlete began to experience pain while decelerating following running to first base. Immediately after the occurrence, the athlete’s knee was “locked” and the athlete was unable to perform active knee flexion or extension. Passively, he was unable to flex or extend due to pain. Following the event, there was an immediate swelling of the knee. The athlete had not complained of pain in his knee prior to this date, but mentioned his knee would occasionally …

Effects Of Caffeine Dose Timing On Total Urine Excretion During Sodium-Aided Hyperhydration Protocols, Shelby L. Greene, David M. Morris

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

When used alone, both caffeine and sodium-aided hyperhydration (SAH) can be ergogenic. Although caffeine use in conjunction with SAH promotes diuresis, hyperhydration can be achieved, albeit at lower levels compared to SAH alone. Previous caffeine and SAH work has suggested most of the caffeine induced diuresis occurs within 15 min of consumption of a bolus of caffeine, sodium and water. This response suggests that caffeine-induces diuresis for only 15 min following its consumption, and/or that the diuretic effects of caffeine are dependent on hydration levels. PURPOSE: To determine the effects of caffeine, consumed at different time-points, on diuresis during SAH …

Case Presentation For Suprascapular Neuropathy, Samantha N. Day, Tal Amasay, Scott Freer

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

CASE HISTORY: The patient is an 18-year-old female collegiate volleyball player who has suffered progressive shoulder pain in her right shoulder. She states that the pain has progressively gotten worse over the past 3-4 years. The sharp pain began when she would raise her right arm above 90 degrees when hitting an overhand serve. Over time, the pain progressed and became noticeable in additional movements. The patient had noted significant weakness in both her right arm and right shoulder. The patient states when she sleeps on her right arm/shoulder she wakes up in severe pain. She has tried sleeping …

Effects Of Cannabidiol Cream On Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness, Victoria A. Garcia, Joshua Kyllingstad, Amanda K. Mccrerey, Gilbert Rodriguez

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Cannabidiol is used for treating anxiety (Bertoglio, Day, Gulmaraes, Jurkus, Lee, & Stevenson, 2016), reducing epileptic seizures (FDA, 2018), as well as reducing inflammation (Zurier, 2003). Limited clinical evidence, however, has been provided to support the therapeutic use of cannabinoids in skeletal inflammation despite the promising preclinical data (Bura, Maldonado, Negrete, & La Porta, 2014). PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to explore the use of Cannabidiol (CBD) cream and its effectiveness to reduce delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). METHODS: Thirteen participants (Age = 25±3.8 yrs, height = 164.3±11.0 cm, weight = 77.5±27.1 kg) performed two sets …

Cytokine Response To Traditional And Cluster Sets In Resistance-Trained Women, Sungwon Chae, Margaret T. Jones Phd, Jennifer B. Fields, Jonathan M. Oliver Phd, James Boyett, Felipe Vechin, Jonathan Nicholson, Spencer Moses, Jakob L. Vingren Phd

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Resistance exercise that incorporates intra-set rest between repetition blocks (i.e., cluster sets [CS]) can produce a smaller metabolic stress and endocrine response than traditional sets (TS). PURPOSE: To examine the effect of CS on the acute cytokine response in resistance trained women. METHODS: 12 resistance-trained women (mean ± SE; 23.7 ± 1.1 years; 160.1 ± 1.5 cm; 62.5 ± 1.7 kg; 5 ± 1 years training) completed 3 sessions in the follicular phase. One-repetition maximum (1RM) back squat (BS) (98.7 ± 4.1 kg), and BS:body mass (1.6 ± 0.1) were determined in Session 1. For Session 2 (3 …

Validity Of Four-Compartment Model Body Fat Using Single- Or Multi-Frequency Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis To Estimate Body Water, M. Lane Moore, Marqui L. Benavides, Jacob R. Dellinger, Brian T. Adamson, Claire P. Underwood, Tyler C. Dierolf, Grant M. Tinsley

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Most common body composition assessment techniques make assumptions about the body, including the density and hydration of fat-free mass (FFM). An advantage of the four-compartment (4C) model is the ability to take these FFM characteristics into account when assessing body composition, thus reducing potential error. The total body water (TBW) estimate utilized in 4C models is particularly important due to the large contribution of water to an adult human’s total body mass (~40 - 70%) and FFM (~68 - 81%); however, the impact of utilizing different estimates of TBW within 4C model has not been fully explored. PURPOSE: The …

Comparison Of Regional Body Composition Estimates Obtained From Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry And Single-Frequency Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis, Jacob Dellinger, M. Lane Moore, Marqui L. Benavides, Tyler C. Dierolf, Brian T. Adamson, Claire P. Underwood, Grant M. Tinsley

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

The anatomical distribution of fat mass (FM) and lean mass (LM) is significant for health and athletic performance. Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is often used for regional body composition analysis but is not portable, often inaccessible, and costly, while single-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis (SFBIA) is a more affordable and accessible alternative. PURPOSE: The purpose of this analysis was to compare regional body composition estimates obtained via DXA and SFBIA. METHODS: After an overnight food and fluid fast, 102 adults (64 F, 38 M; age: 29.2 ± 13.4 y; BMI: 24.3 ± 3.9 kg/m²; BF%: 24.6 ± …

Validity Of Infrared 3-Dimensional Scanning For Estimation Of Body Composition: A 4-Compartment Model Comparison, Brian T. Adamson, Jacob R. Dellinger, Marqui L. Benavides, M. Lane Moore, Claire P. Underwood, Tyler C. Dierolf, Grant M. Tinsley

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Multiple infrared 3-dimensional (3D) scanning technologies exist, including time of flight (ToF) scanners and structured light scanners with static (SL-S) and dynamic (SL-D) configurations. ToF scanners measure depth by using the round-trip time of reflected photons, whereas SL scanners measure deformations in light patterns and allow for creation of a depth image using geometric triangulation. Recently, 3D scanning technologies have been proposed as novel methods of body composition assessment. PURPOSE: The purpose of this analysis was to examine the validity of four different commercially-available 3D scanners for estimation of body fat percentage (BF%) as compared to a 4-compartment (4C) …

Circulating Inflammatory And Oxidative Stress Responses To Steady-State Moderate-Intensity And High-Intensity Interval Exercise In Mid-Spectrum Chronic Kidney Disease, Matthew Peterson, Jeffrey S. Forsse, James K. Taylor, Zach Papadakis, Nick Schwedock, Burritt Hess, Jackson O. Griggs Md, Crawford Allison, Ron Wilson Md, Kathleen Adair, Mitch Cholewinski, Peter Grandjean

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Inflammation and oxidative stress can be potent modulators of vascular function. These factors may transiently respond to moderate-intensity steady state exercise (SSE) in a manner that improves post-exercise vascular function in healthy adults. Whether exercise imparts similar effects in adults with Stage 3 or 4 chronic kidney disease (CKD) remains understudied. Moreover, a comparison of SSE and high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) may add to clinically-relevant findings for improving vascular function in mid-spectrum CKD. PURPOSE: To determine the influence of SSE and a comparable amount of HIIE on post-exercise inflammation and oxidative stress in patients diagnosed with secondary Stage 3 or …

Can Acute Galactic Cosmic Radiation-Induced Bone Loss Be Mitigated By Dietary Modulation Of Inflammatory Cytokines?, Sarah E. Little, Heather Cm Allaway, Rihana Bokhari, Kimberly L. Wahl, Derek V. Seidel, Nancy D. Turner, John R. Ford, Larry Suva, Susan Bloomfield

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

The space environment includes weightlessness and galactic cosmic radiation (GCR), both of which can have a negative impact on bone parameters. In particular, acute exposures to space-relevant doses (2 Gy or less) of simulated GCR lead to a rapid acceleration of bone resorption activity and suppression of bone forming osteoblasts, resulting in diminished bone mineral density (BMD), strength and altered microarchitecture. A key mechanism driving these changes may be a radiation-induced increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α. Consuming a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids has been associated with attenuated reductions in bone parameters in astronauts, mice and elderly …

Validity Of A Linear Velocity Transducer For Measuring Peak Ground Reaction Force During A Countermovement Vertical Jump Test, Ethan Mitchell, Chinonye C. Agu-Udemba, Ahalee C. Cathey, Ty B. Palmer

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

ABSTRACT

Linear velocity transducers offera portable and cost-effective means for quantifying peak ground reaction force (GRF) during a countermovement vertical jump (CMJ) test; however, their ability to provide valid vertical jump GRF measurements similar to those of a force plate (“gold standard”) remains unclear. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the differences and relationship between force plate and linear velocity transducer measurements of peak GRF during a CMJ test. METHODS: Seventeen healthy, young females (age = 22 ± 3 years; mass = 61 ± 8 kg; height = 163 ± 7 cm) performed three CMJ …

Reliability And Relationship Between Ballistic Push-Up And Vertical Jump Peak Ground Reaction Force, Chinonye C. Agu-Udemba, Ethan Mitchell, Ahalee C. Cathey, Ty B. Palmer

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Ballistic push-up (BPU) assessments are commonly used to evaluate athletic ability in young adults. It has been hypothesized that the peak ground reaction force (GRF) produced during a BPU may be an important predictor of upper-body strength and explosive performance capacities. However, limited data exist regarding the reliability of BPU GRF and how it relates to peak force values during a countermovement vertical jump (CMJ) test. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability of BPU GRF and its relationship with vertical jump GRF values. METHODS: Seventeen young, healthy females (age = 22 ± 3 …

The Effect Of Varying High-Intensity Interval Training Style Warm-Ups On Hemodynamic, Power, And Flexibility Responses, Nelson Wise, Orlando Cepeda, Klarissa Ybarra, Brenda Palma, Brianna Lopez, Manuel Nunez, Ezra Meza, Alexandria Hinojosa, Amanda Hankins, Murat Karabulut

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) style warm-up on hemodynamic, power, and flexibility responses. METHODS: Twelve male subjects (age: 24.15 ± 3.1 yr. & weight: 78.78 ± 16.83 kg) completed the study. On the first day, initial screening, anthropometric measures, and familiarization with testing procedures were completed. There were a total of 6 randomized testing sessions (separated by at least 48 hours.). The testing sessions were as follows: 3-min warm-up session with 20 sec work followed by 10 sec (C1), 3-min warm-up session with 30 sec work followed …

The Effect Of Aerobic And Resistance Training On Glycemic Control In Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Meta-Analytic Study, Ana Lopez, Frank Wyatt

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Diabetes is a widely-spread disease among the whole population and can cause other complications in many organs if not treated correctly. Medications along with exercise and an appropriate diet are a key point in the management of type 2 diabetes. PURPOSE: to analyze the effects of aerobic, resistance, and combined training carefully on glycemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus. METHODS: A meta-analysis review was conducted to investigate differences in glucose and HbA1c levels with aerobic and resistance training in type 2 diabetes patients. Data over training, HbA1c and daily glucose levels was collected from different studies for …

Mental Health Best Practices In Ncaa: The Bidirectional Relationship Between Mental Toughness And Self-Compassion, R. Noah Padgett, Jeffrey S. Forsse, Zacharias Papadakis, Paul J. Deal, Andreas Stamatis Dr.

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Based on National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) reports, student-athletes’ well-being is compromised by sub-clinical issues of mental health (MH) disorders, such as depression and anxiety. Preliminary data have shown a positive relationship between mental toughness (MT) and MH, self-compassion (SC) and MH, and SC and MT. To date, possible indirect causal relationships between these three constructs have not been investigated. PURPOSE: To confirm the three aforementioned relationships in NCAA athletes and explore the mediation role of MT and SC on the SC-MH and MT-MH relationships, respectively. Hypotheses: (1) MT will correlate positively with MH, (2) SC will correlate positively …

Muscle Glycogen Depletion And Replenishment: A Meta-Analytic Review, Ian Macklin, Frank Wyatt, Malaeni Ramos, Grant Ralston

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Muscle glycogen depletion and replenishment rates have been associated with sport performance, biomechanical movement and immune system alterations. PURPOSE: the purpose of this study is to determine, through a meta-analytic review, the mechanisms of muscle glycogen depletion and replenishment. METHODS: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis research design was utilized. Inclusion-exclusion criteria were the following: Glycogen depletion- replenishment studies; subjects in studies had no pathologies; human and animal studies were accepted; Studies with diet manipulation were accepted; articles accepted for coding were peer reviewed, original publications. Coded studies were summarized and statistically analyzed. Coded variables were presented as …

Renal Function Responses To Steady-State Moderate-Intensity And High-Intensity Interval Exercise In Mid-Spectrum Chronic Kidney Disease, Kathleen E. Adair, Jeffrey S. Forsse 4681817, Matthew Peterson, Zacharias Papadakis, Mitch Cholewinski, Peter Grandjean

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Efficacy of exercise to improve renal function remains understudied in adults with mid-spectrum chronic kidney disease (CKD). In addition, a comparison of steady-state exercise (SSE) and high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) may contribute clinically-relevant information for exercise-related augmentation of renal function in mid-spectrum CKD. PURPOSE: To determine the influence of SSE and a comparable amount of HIIE on indicators of post-exercise renal function in patients diagnosed with secondary Stage 3 or 4 CKD. METHODS: Twenty participants (n = 6 men; n = 14 women; age 62.0 + 9.9 yr; weight 80.9 + 16.2 kg; body fat 37.3 + 8.5% …

Predicting Vo2max From 1- And 1.5-Mile Runs, Cindy M. Trinh

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

VO₂max is the gold standard to assess cardiovascular fitness, an important factor in the longevity of health. Consequently, not everyone can perform a maximal cardiovascular test. PURPOSE: To determine the accuracy of the 1-mile or 1.5-mile run to predict VO₂max. METHODS: Field runs were counterbalanced and performed on an outdoor, all-weather 400m oval track. Subjects (N=114) warmed up and stretched, then lined up single file and signaled to go in ten-second increments. At the end of the run, HR, RPE (Borg’s 6-20) and time was recorded. VO₂max: subjects were fitted with a …

Effect Of Partner And Individual Exercise On Motivation And Fitness, Kayla A. Swiantkiewicz

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Research has shown that motivation is a key component for exercise adherence. Some have reported that exercising with a partner is more effective to obtaining goals rather than working out individually. PURPOSE: To assess motivation and fitness levels between individual and partnered workouts after four weeks of training. METHODS: Sixteen participants (age: 24.3±2.2, height: 67.4±3.2, weight: 187.9±44.6) performed baseline testing, four weeks of circuit training, and post testing in either individual (IG) or partnered (PG) sessions. The participants were also given a motivation questionnaire pre and post tests. ANOVAs were used to determine differences in how long they …

Effect Of Pre-Workout Supplement On Vertical Jump And Anaerobic Power, Jonathon Martinez

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Pre-Workout (PW) supplements have been utilized to increase workout performance and efficiency. Its intended purpose is to facilitate strength gains, however, this study seeks to explore its effects on anaerobic power-output. PURPOSE: To determine the effects of a PW supplement on the Vertical Jump Test and the Wingate Test. METHODS: This was administered as a double-blind, counter-balanced study. Participant’s (age = 26.3±7.5 yrs., ht. = 168.5±10.4 cm, wt. = 73.9±19.2 kg., BMI = 25.4±5.2) resting HR was measured then they consumed either a PW supplement or a placebo (PL) and waited for 15 minutes, after which HR was …

Case Presentation For Peripheral Nerve Neuropraxia (Trauma), Maria C. Herrera, Tal Amasay, Matthew Santos- Vitorino

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

CASE HISTORY: The patient is a 20 years old female collegiate rower who has been suffering a series of acute and chronic events for 15 months which began with pain in the left shoulder. The pain started at the vertebral border and superior angle of the scapula after rowing in the open water. She received one month of treatment for scapular dyskinesia. At this time, the patient suffered a second injury mechanism involving the subluxation of the rib heads of T4 through T6 with stress fractures in the corresponding ribs. The athlete went through four months without participating in sport …