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Articles 25141 - 25170 of 34721

Full-Text Articles in Electrical and Computer Engineering

Delay Modeling And Long-Range Predictive Control Of Czochralski Growth Process, Dhaval Shah Jan 2009

Delay Modeling And Long-Range Predictive Control Of Czochralski Growth Process, Dhaval Shah

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

This work presents the Czochralski growth dynamics as time-varying delay based model, applied to the growth of La3Ga5.5Ta0.5O14 (LGT) piezoelectric crystals. The growth of high-quality large-diameter oxides by Czochralski technique requires the theoretical understanding and optimization of all relevant process parameters, growth conditions, and melts chemistry. Presently, proportional-integral- derivative (PID) type controllers are widely accepted for constant-diameter crystal growth by Czochralski. Such control systems, however, do not account for aspects such as the transportation delay of the heat from crucible wall to the crystal solidification front, heat radiated from the crucible wall above the melt surface, and varying melt level. …

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Pulse Frequency Modulation Zcs Flyback Converter In Inverter Applications, Feng Tian Jan 2009

Pulse Frequency Modulation Zcs Flyback Converter In Inverter Applications, Feng Tian

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Renewable energy source plays an important role in energy co-generation and distribution. A traditional solar-based inverter system has two stages cascaded, which has simpler controller but low efficiency. A new solar-based single-stage grid-connected inverter system can achieve higher efficiency by reducing the power semiconductor switching loss and output stable and synchronizing sinusoid current into the utility grid. In Chapter 1, the characteristic I-V and P-V curve of PV array has been illustrated. Based on prediction of the PV power capacity installed on the grid-connected and off-grid, the trends of grid-tied inverter for DG system have been analyzed. In Chapter 2, …

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A Statistical Approach To View Synthesis, Phillip Berkowitz Jan 2009

A Statistical Approach To View Synthesis, Phillip Berkowitz

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

View Synthesis is the challenging problem of predicting a new view or pose of an object given an exemplar view or set of views. This thesis presents a novel approach for the problem of view synthesis. The proposed method uses global features rather than local geometry to achieve an effect similar to that of the well known view morphing method . While previous approaches to the view synthesis problem have shown impressive results, they are highly dependent on being able to solve for epipolar geometry and therefore have a very precise correspondence between reference images. In cases where this is …

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Solar And Fuel Cell Circuit Modeling, Analysis And Integrations With Power Conversion Circuits For Distributed Generation, Smitha Krishnamurthy Jan 2009

Solar And Fuel Cell Circuit Modeling, Analysis And Integrations With Power Conversion Circuits For Distributed Generation, Smitha Krishnamurthy

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Renewable energy is considered to be one of the most promising alternatives for the growing energy demand in response to depletion of fossil fuels and undesired global warming issue. With such perspective, Solar Cells and Fuel Cells are most viable, environmentally sound, and sustainable energy sources for power generation. Solar and Fuel cells have created great interests in modern applications including distributed energy generation to provide clean energy. The purpose of this thesis was to perform a detailed analysis and modeling of Solar and Fuel cells using Cadence SPICE, and to investigate dynamic interactions between the modules and power conversion …

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Study Of Ingaas Ldmos For Power Conversion Applications, Yidong Liu Jan 2009

Study Of Ingaas Ldmos For Power Conversion Applications, Yidong Liu

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

In this work an n-channel In0.65Ga0.35As LDMOS with Al2O3 as gate dielectric is investigated. Instead of using traditional Si process for LDMOS, we suggest In0.65Ga0.35As as substitute material due to its higher electron mobility and its promising for power applications. The proposed 0.5-µm channel-length LDMOS cell is studied through device TCAD simulation tools. Due to different gate dielectric, comprehensive comparisons between In0.65Ga0.35As LDMOS and Si LDMOS are made in two ways, structure with the same cross-sectional dimension, and structure with different thickness of gate dielectric to achieve the same gate capacitance. The on-resistance of the new device shows a big …

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Realization Of Power Factor Correction And Maximum Power Point Tracking For Low Power Wind Turbines, Gustavo Gamboa Jan 2009

Realization Of Power Factor Correction And Maximum Power Point Tracking For Low Power Wind Turbines, Gustavo Gamboa

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

In recent years, wind energy technology has become one of the top areas of interest for energy harvesting in the power electronics world. This interest has especially peaked recently due to the increasing demand for a reliable source of renewable energy. In a recent study, the American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) ranked the U.S as the leading competitor in wind energy harvesting followed by Germany and Spain. Although the United States is the leading competitor in this area, no one has been able successfully develop an efficient, low-cost AC/DC convertor for low power turbines to be used by the average …

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Nonlinear Stabilization And Control Of Medium Range Surface To Air Interceptor Missiles, Mark Snyder Jan 2009

Nonlinear Stabilization And Control Of Medium Range Surface To Air Interceptor Missiles, Mark Snyder

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Nonlinear stabilization and control autopilots are capable of sustaining nominal performance throughout the entire fight envelope an interceptor missile may encounter during hostile engagements and require no gain scheduling to maintain autopilot stability. Due to non minimum phase conditions characteristic of tail controlled missile airframes, a separation of time scales within the dynamic equations of motion between rotational and translational differential equations was enforced to overcome unstable effects of non minimum phase. Dynamic inversion techniques are then applied to derive linearizing equations which, when injected forward into the plant result in a fully controllable linear system. Objectives of the two …

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Wavefront Sensor For Eye Aberrations Measurements, Costin Curatu Jan 2009

Wavefront Sensor For Eye Aberrations Measurements, Costin Curatu

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Ocular wavefront sensing is vital to improving our understanding of the human eye and to developing advanced vision correction methods, such as adaptive optics, customized contact lenses, and customized laser refractive surgery. It is also a necessary technique for high-resolution imaging of the retina. The most commonly used wavefront sensing method is based on the Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor. Since Junzhong Liang's first application of Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensing for the human eye in 1994, the method has quickly gained acceptance and popularity in the ophthalmic industry. Several commercial Shack-Hartmann eye aberrometers are currently available. While the existing aberrometers offer reasonable measurement …

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Analysis And Design Of Wide-Angle Foveated Optical Systems, George Curatu Jan 2009

Analysis And Design Of Wide-Angle Foveated Optical Systems, George Curatu

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

The development of compact imaging systems capable of transmitting high-resolution images in real-time while covering a wide field-of-view (FOV) is critical in a variety of military and civilian applications: surveillance, threat detection, target acquisition, tracking, remote operation of unmanned vehicles, etc. Recently, optical foveated imaging using liquid crystal (LC) spatial light modulators (SLM) has received considerable attention as a potential approach to reducing size and complexity in fast wide-angle lenses. The fundamental concept behind optical foveated imaging is reducing the number of elements in a fast wide-angle lens by placing a phase SLM at the pupil stop to dynamically compensate …

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Dense Spectral Beam Combining With Volume Bragg Gratings In Photo-Thermo-Refractive Glass, Oleksiy Andrusyak Jan 2009

Dense Spectral Beam Combining With Volume Bragg Gratings In Photo-Thermo-Refractive Glass, Oleksiy Andrusyak

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Beam combining techniques have become an important tool in the design of high-power high-brightness laser systems. Spectral beam combining (SBC) is an incoherent combining technique that does not require phase control of sources, allowing for a stable and robust system. Using SBC, beams from an array of lasers with each element operated at a different wavelength are combined into a single near-diffraction-limited beam with the same aperture using dispersive optical elements. SBC by means of volume Bragg gratings (VBGs) utilizes unique spectral response of VBGs: diffraction efficiency is close to unity when the Bragg condition is satisfied and is close …

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Design, Analysis, And Optimization Of Diffractive Optical Elements Under High Numerical Aperture Focusing, Toufic Jabbour Jan 2009

Design, Analysis, And Optimization Of Diffractive Optical Elements Under High Numerical Aperture Focusing, Toufic Jabbour

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

The demand for high optical resolution has brought researchers to explore the use of beam shaping diffractive optical elements (DOEs) for improving performance of high numerical aperture (NA) optical systems. DOEs can be designed to modulate the amplitude, phase and/or polarization of a laser beam such that it focuses into a targeted irradiance distribution, or point spread function (PSF). The focused PSF can be reshaped in both the transverse focal plane and along the optical axis. Optical lithography, microscopy and direct laser writing are but a few of the many applications in which a properly designed DOE can significantly improve …

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Optical Nonlinear Interactions In Dielectric Nano-Suspensions, Ramy El-Ganainy Jan 2009

Optical Nonlinear Interactions In Dielectric Nano-Suspensions, Ramy El-Ganainy

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

This work is divided into two main parts. In the first part (chapters 2-7) we consider the nonlinear response of nano-particle colloidal systems. Starting from the Nernst-Planck and Smoluchowski equations, we demonstrate that in these arrangements the underlying nonlinearities as well as the nonlinear Rayleigh losses depend exponentially on optical intensity. Two different nonlinear regimes are identified depending on the refractive index contrast of the nanoparticles involved and the interesting prospect of self-induced transparency is demonstrated. Soliton stability is systematically analyzed for both 1D and 2D configurations and their propagation dynamics in the presence of Rayleigh losses is examined. We …

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Gabor Domain Optical Coherence Microscopy, Supraja Murali Jan 2009

Gabor Domain Optical Coherence Microscopy, Supraja Murali

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Time domain Optical Coherence Tomography (TD-OCT), first reported in 1991, makes use of the low temporal coherence properties of a NIR broadband laser to create depth sectioning of up to 2mm under the surface using optical interferometry and point to point scanning. Prior and ongoing work in OCT in the research community has concentrated on improving axial resolution through the development of broadband sources and speed of image acquisition through new techniques such as Spectral domain OCT (SD-OCT). In SD-OCT, an entire depth scan is acquired at once with a low numerical aperture (NA) objective lens focused at a fixed …

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Power Scaling Of Large Mode Area Thulium Fiber Lasers In Various Spectral And Temporal Regimes, Timothy Mccomb Jan 2009

Power Scaling Of Large Mode Area Thulium Fiber Lasers In Various Spectral And Temporal Regimes, Timothy Mccomb

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

High power thulium fiber lasers are interesting for a myriad of applications due to their potential for high average output power, excellent beam quality, compactness, portability, high operating efficiency and broad, eye-safe spectral range from 1.8-2.1 microns. Currently, the majority of thulium laser research effort is being invested into scaling average output powers; however, such output powers are being scaled with no degree of control on laser system output spectrum or temporal behavior. Thulium fiber laser technology is not useful for many of its most important applications without implementation of techniques enabling tunable, narrow spectral widths with appropriate pulse durations …

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Silicon Carbide And Agile Optics Based Sensors For Power Plant Gas Turbines, Laser Beam Analysis And Biomedicine, Mumtaz Sheikh Jan 2009

Silicon Carbide And Agile Optics Based Sensors For Power Plant Gas Turbines, Laser Beam Analysis And Biomedicine, Mumtaz Sheikh

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Proposed are novel sensors for extreme environment power plants, laser beam analysis and biomedicine. A hybrid wireless-wired extreme environment temperature sensor using a thick single-crystal Silicon Carbide (SiC) chip embedded inside a sintered SiC probe design is investigated and experimentally demonstrated. The sensor probe employs the SiC chip as a Fabry-Perot (FP) interferometer to measure the change in refractive index and thickness of SiC with temperature. A novel temperature sensing method that combines wavelength-tuned signal processing for coarse measurements and classical FP etalon peak shift for fine measurements is proposed and demonstrated. This method gives direct unambiguous temperature measurements with …

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Performance Of Pan-Tilt Tracker Based On The Pin-Hole Lens Model, Vikas Chandra Mehta Jan 2009

Performance Of Pan-Tilt Tracker Based On The Pin-Hole Lens Model, Vikas Chandra Mehta

University of Kentucky Master's Theses

In the modern day, recognition and tracking of face or the iris is potentially one of the most powerful ways of differentiating between an authentic person and an imposter. Our method uses stereo vision to track the 3-Dimensional coordinates of a target equivalent to a person’s eyes and using a pan-tilt unit we target these areas for additional processing such as iris or facial imaging. One of the most important parts involved in tracking is the way the pan-tilt unit is calibrated. There have been techniques in the past where PTZ (Pan-tilt-zoom) digital camera has been used and calibrated using …

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Design And Analysis Of Nano-Gap Enhanced Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensors, Phillip Donald Keathley Jan 2009

Design And Analysis Of Nano-Gap Enhanced Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensors, Phillip Donald Keathley

University of Kentucky Master's Theses

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensors are advantageous to other techniques of sensing chemical binding, offering quantitative, real-time, label-free results. Previous work has demonstrated the effectiveness of using dual-mode SPR sensors to differentiate between surface and background effects, making the sensors more robust to dynamic environments. This work demonstrates a technique that improves upon a previously optimized planar film dual-mode SPR sensor’s LOD by introducing a periodic array of subwavelength nano-gaps throughout the plasmon supporting material. First, general figures of merit for a sensor having an arbitrary number of modes are studied. Next, the mode effective index dispersion and magnetic field …

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A Novel Real-Time Mac Layer Protocol For Wireless Sensor Network Applications, B.K. Singh, Kemal Tepe Jan 2009

A Novel Real-Time Mac Layer Protocol For Wireless Sensor Network Applications, B.K. Singh, Kemal Tepe

Electrical and Computer Engineering Publications

This paper presents a comparative study of existing real-time MAC layer protocols for wireless sensor networks. Then, a new real-Time MAC protocol is presented that is based on a general purpose MAC protocol, called S-MAC. While medium access strategy in S-MAC is based on contention and back-off schemes, protocol proposed in this paper uses feedback approach as a medium access strategy. As a result of this, it increases consistency in data transmission pattern, which enables it to guarantee end-to-end delay deadlines for soft realtime applications. Proposed protocol works in continuous ON mode of operation at MAC layer and is intended …

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Software Product Line Engineering: Future Research Directions, Luiz Fernando Capretz, Faheem Ahmed Jan 2009

Software Product Line Engineering: Future Research Directions, Luiz Fernando Capretz, Faheem Ahmed

Electrical and Computer Engineering Publications

The recent trend of switching from single software product development to
lines of software products in the software industry has made the software product line concept viable and widely accepted methodology in the future. Some of the potential benefits of this approach include cost reduction, improvement in quality and a decrease in product development time. Many organizations that deal in wide areas of operation, from consumer electronics, telecommunications, and avionics to information technology, are using software product lines practice because it deals with effective utilization of
software assets and provides numerous benefits. Software product line engineering is an inter-disciplinary concept. …

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Virtualisation And Thin Client : A Survey Of Virtual Desktop Environments, Tom Wall Jan 2009

Virtualisation And Thin Client : A Survey Of Virtual Desktop Environments, Tom Wall

Other resources

This survey examines some of the leading commercial Virtualisation and Thin Client technologies. Reference is made to a number of academic research sources and to prominent industry specialists and commentators. A basic virtualisation Laboratory model is assembled to demonstrate fundamental Thin Client operations and to clarify potential problem areas.

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A Mobile Ecg Monitoring System With Context Collection, Jin Peng Li, Damon Berry, Richard Hayes Jan 2009

A Mobile Ecg Monitoring System With Context Collection, Jin Peng Li, Damon Berry, Richard Hayes

Conference Papers

Preventative health management represents a shift from the traditional approach of reactive treatment-based healthcare towards a proactive wellness-management approach where patients are encouraged to stay healthy with expert support when they need it, at any location and any time. This work represents a step along the road towards proactive, preventative healthcare for cardiac patients. It seeks to develop a smart mobile ECG monitoring system that requests and records context information about what is happening around the subject when an arrhythmia event occurs. Context information about the subject’s activities of daily living will, it is hoped, provide an enriched data set …

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Relative Intensity Noise Study In The Injection-Locked Integrated Electroabsorption Modulator-Lasers, Xiaomin Jin, Bennet Yun Tarng, Shun-Lien Chuang Jan 2009

Relative Intensity Noise Study In The Injection-Locked Integrated Electroabsorption Modulator-Lasers, Xiaomin Jin, Bennet Yun Tarng, Shun-Lien Chuang

Electrical Engineering

We present a comprehensive analytical theoretical model for the relative intensity noise (RIN) spectrum of integrated semiconductor quantum-well (QW) lasers under injection-locking. We use a novel setup by employing an integrated electroabsorption modulator-laser (EML) to measure the RIN of the injection-locked distributed feedback (DFB) laser, where the modulator section is used as a photodetector. The EML has an anti-reflection coating on the laser side, so that an injection light from an external master laser can be coupled effectively into the laser section. This scheme simplifies the setup and reduces the alignment loss between discrete optical components. Experimental data indicates that …

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Performance Study Of Series Loaded Resonant Converter Using Super Barrier Rectifiers, Taufik, Michael Mccarthy, Scott Watkins, Makbul Anwari Jan 2009

Performance Study Of Series Loaded Resonant Converter Using Super Barrier Rectifiers, Taufik, Michael Mccarthy, Scott Watkins, Makbul Anwari

Electrical Engineering

In power electronics efficiency improvement is constantly being sought out through venues such as improved topologies or improved devices. Series loaded resonant (SLR) DC-DC converter is a type of soft-switching topology widely known for providing improved efficiency. This paper investigates the efficiency and transient performance of SLR when a new type of diode called Super Barrier RectifierTM is being used. The design of SLR, results from computer simulations, and hardware measurements will be discussed. The efficiency measurements from all conduction modes in SLR using three types of diodes (pn, schottky, and SBR) will be presented along with transient study of …

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A Multicultural Comparison Of Engineering Students: Implications To Teaching And Learning, Zaki Shkair Seddigi, Luiz Fernando Capretz, David House Jan 2009

A Multicultural Comparison Of Engineering Students: Implications To Teaching And Learning, Zaki Shkair Seddigi, Luiz Fernando Capretz, David House

Electrical and Computer Engineering Publications

Problem statement: Personality considerations have become increasingly important in recent years, but studies involving the personality characteristics of engineers have been scarcely reported. Engineers today are expected to have a broader range of skills than in the recent past because users are now equally concerned with the technical as well as the personal services provided by engineers. Approach: A multicultural personality profile of engineering students had been presented in this study. The MBTI was used as an instrument to sort personality types of engineering students at both King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals in Saudi Arabia and University of …

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Achievable Rates And Resource Allocation Strategies For Imperfectly Known Fading Relay Channels, Junwei Zhang, M. Cenk Gursoy Jan 2009

Achievable Rates And Resource Allocation Strategies For Imperfectly Known Fading Relay Channels, Junwei Zhang, M. Cenk Gursoy

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Faculty Publications

Achievable rates and resource allocation strategies for imperfectly known fading relay channels are studied. It is assumed that communication starts with the network training phase in which the receivers estimate the fading coefficients. Achievable rate expressions for amplify-and-forward and decode-and-forward relaying schemes with different degrees of cooperation are obtained. We identify efficient strategies in three resource allocation problems: (1) power allocation between data and training symbols, (2) time/bandwidth allocation to the relay, and (3) power allocation between the source and relay in the presence of total power constraints. It is noted that unless the source-relay channel quality is high, cooperation …

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Ground-Plane Quasicloaking For Free Space, Efthymios Kallos, Christos Argyropoulos, Yang Hao Jan 2009

Ground-Plane Quasicloaking For Free Space, Efthymios Kallos, Christos Argyropoulos, Yang Hao

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Faculty Publications

Ground-plane cloak designs are presented, which minimize scattering of electromagnetic radiation from metallic objects in the visible spectrum. It is showed that simplified ground-plane cloaks made from only a few blocks of all-dielectric isotropic materials, either embedded in a background medium or in free space, can provide considerable cloaking performance while maintaining their broadband nature. A design which operates isolated in free space that cloaks radiation originating from a specified direction is also analyzed. These schemes should be much easier to be demonstrated experimentally compared to full designs.

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Sequencing, Analysis, And Annotation Of Expressed Sequence Tags For Camelus Dromedarius, Abdulaziz M. Al-Swailem, Maher M. Shehata, Faisel M. Abu-Duhier, Essam J. Al-Yamani, Khalid A. Al-Busadah, Mohammed S. Al-Arawi, Ali Y. Al-Khider, Abdullah N. Al-Muhaimeed, Fahad H. Al-Qahtani, Manee M. Manee, Badr M. Al-Shomrani, Saad M. Al-Qhtani, Amer S. Al-Harthi, Kadir C. Akdemir, Mehmet S. Inan, Hasan H. Otu Jan 2009

Sequencing, Analysis, And Annotation Of Expressed Sequence Tags For Camelus Dromedarius, Abdulaziz M. Al-Swailem, Maher M. Shehata, Faisel M. Abu-Duhier, Essam J. Al-Yamani, Khalid A. Al-Busadah, Mohammed S. Al-Arawi, Ali Y. Al-Khider, Abdullah N. Al-Muhaimeed, Fahad H. Al-Qahtani, Manee M. Manee, Badr M. Al-Shomrani, Saad M. Al-Qhtani, Amer S. Al-Harthi, Kadir C. Akdemir, Mehmet S. Inan, Hasan H. Otu

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Faculty Publications

Despite its economical, cultural, and biological importance, there has not been a large scale sequencing project to date for Camelus dromedarius. With the goal of sequencing complete DNA of the organism, we first established and sequenced camel EST libraries, generating 70,272 reads. Following trimming, chimera check, repeat masking, cluster and assembly, we obtained 23,602 putative gene sequences, out of which over 4,500 potentially novel or fast evolving gene sequences do not carry any homology to other available genomes. Functional annotation of sequences with similarities in nucleotide and protein databases has been obtained using Gene Ontology classification. Comparison to available …

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Genes Differentially Expressed By Cumulus Cells And Assays Using Same To Identify Pregnancy Competent Oocytes, Jose B. Cibelli, Amy E. Iager, Hasan H. Otu Jan 2009

Genes Differentially Expressed By Cumulus Cells And Assays Using Same To Identify Pregnancy Competent Oocytes, Jose B. Cibelli, Amy E. Iager, Hasan H. Otu

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Faculty Publications

A genetic means of identifying "pregnancy competent" oocytes is provided. The means comprises detecting the level of expression of one or more genes that are expressed at characteristic levels (upregulated or downregulated) in cumulus cells derived from pregnancy competent oocytes. This characteristic gene expression level, or pattern referred to herein as the "pregnancy signature", also can be used to identify subjects with underlying conditions that impair or prevent the development of a viable pregnancy, e.g., pre-menopausal condition, other hormonal dysfunction, ovarian dysfunction, ovarian cyst, cancer or other cell proliferation disorder, autoimmune disease and the like. In preferred embodiments the …

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Samplemaskinginellipsometerand The Like Systems Including Detection Of Substrate Backside Reflections, Martin M. Liphardt, James D. Welch, Corey L. Bungay, John A. Woollam Jan 2009

Samplemaskinginellipsometerand The Like Systems Including Detection Of Substrate Backside Reflections, Martin M. Liphardt, James D. Welch, Corey L. Bungay, John A. Woollam

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Faculty Publications

A system and method of preventing substrate backside reflected components in a beam of electromagnetic radiation caused to reflect from the surface of a sample in an ellipsometer or polarimeter system, involving placing a mask adjacent to the surface of the sample which allows electromagnetic radiation to access the sample over only a limited area, wherein to access the sample over only a limited area, wherein the mask can include detector elements for collecting electromagnetic radiation reflected from the sample backside.

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Sample Investigating System, Martin M. Liphardt, Thomas E. Tiwald, Blaine D. Johs, Jeffery S. Hale, Craig M. Herzinger, Steven E. Green, Ping He, Ronald A. Synowicki, John A. Woollam Jan 2009

Sample Investigating System, Martin M. Liphardt, Thomas E. Tiwald, Blaine D. Johs, Jeffery S. Hale, Craig M. Herzinger, Steven E. Green, Ping He, Ronald A. Synowicki, John A. Woollam

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering: Faculty Publications

A spectroscopic system for adjusting spacing between an adjacent source/detector as a unit, and a sample, and a reflecting means for directing an incident beam which refelcts from said sample back onto said sample and then into the detector along a locus which is in a plance of incidence that is offset from that of the incident beam, or directly from the reflecting means into the detecor, including means for reducing reflections of a beam fo electromagnetic from the back of a sample, including methodology of use.

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