Chemistry Commons^™

The Development Of A One Pot, Two Reaction Synthetic Preparation Of 1,2,4-Oxadiazole, And Synthesis Of Ataluren, A Novel Drug In The Fight Against Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. Efforts Towards The Synthesis Of A Potential Protease Inhibitor Against The Main Protease (3clpro) Of Covid-19, Austin J. Carter

Theses and Dissertations

1,2,4-Oxadiazoles are five-membered heterocyclic structures first synthesized by Tiemann and Krüger in 1884. Recent discoveries suggest an array of useful biological properties.In preparation of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles, the most prevalent precursors are amidoximes, which can be created via the reaction of nitriles with hydroxylamine hydrochloride and a base. The amidoximes are reacted with an activated carboxylic acid to yield an acylated intermediate. This intermediate can be exposed to a base to cyclize into the 1,2,4-oxadiazole. This thesis describes the efforts in combining these three steps into a unified one-pot synthesis.

Currently, there are a significant number of commercially available FDA approved and …

Site-Specific Modification Of Antibodies Utilizing Microbial Transglutaminase For Improved Immunoassay Performance, Emily Beitello

Theses and Dissertations

Immobilization strategies used for fixing antibodies to solid phase surfaces significantly contribute to the antigen capture capacity and influences the performance and sensitivity of immunoassays. Traditional methodologies result in the random orientation and/or the weak attachment of immobilized antibodies. Different formats of immunoassays scope in applicability to many fields of research and everyday use. Improving the efficiency of immobilizing antibodies in immunoassays is a beneficial endeavor to increase assay sensitivity. Here, we investigated the use of enzyme-mediated conjugation of antibodies to facilitate a highly oriented immobilization. Microbial transglutaminase (mTG) catalyzes the covalent bond formation between a plethora of primary amine …

Generational Exposures To Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles And Perfluorooctanesulfonic Acid Affect The Performance Of Daughter Plants, Preston Clubb

Graduate Theses/Dissertations

The effects of parental stress on the performance of next generation exposed to another contaminant were investigated. Wheat was exposed to cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeO2-NPs) in first and second generations and exposed to perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) in the third generation. Phenotypic or metabolic responses were assessed at 21-day (short-term exposure) or 90-day (long-term exposure) exposure periods. Biomass production, chlorophyll content, enzyme activity, and membrane damage were measured at short-term exposure, while elemental and PFOS concentrations, and grain metabolites were analyzed in long-term exposure. Results showed that continued exposures to CeO2-NPs and PFOS enhanced chlorophyll content but reduced concentrations of important …

Organic Geochemical Evidence For Life In Archean Rocks Identified By Pyrolysis-Gc-Ms And Supervised Machine Learning, Michael L. Wong, Anirudh Prabhu, Conel O'D. Alexander, H. James Cleaves Ii, George D. Cody, Grethe Hystad, Marko Bermanec, Wouter Bleeker, C. Kevin Boyce, Andrea Corpolongo, Andrew D. Czaja, Souvik Das, Robert R. Gaines, Daniel D. Gregory, John A. Jaszczak, Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Jaganmoy Jodder, Andrew H. Knoll, Martin Van Kranendonk, Katie M. Maloney, Nora Noffke, Robert Rainbird, Emersyn Slaughter, Eva E. Stüeken, Roger E. Summons, Frances Westall, Jasmina Wiemann, Shuhai Xiao, Robert M. Hazen

OES Faculty Publications

Throughout Earth’s history, organic molecules from both abiogenic and biogenic sources have been buried in sedimentary rocks. Most of these organic molecules have been significantly altered by geologic processes through deep time. Nonetheless, the nature and distribution of those ancient fragmentary organic remains have the potential to reveal diagnostic biomolecular information after billions of years of burial. Here, we analyzed 406 fossil, modern biological, meteoritic, and synthetic samples using pyrolysis gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. We explored these analytical data via supervised machine-learning methods to discriminate samples of biogenic vs. abiogenic origin, plant vs. animal phylogenetic affinity, and photosynthetic vs. …

Synthesis Of Fe3o4@Mil-101-Oh/Chitosan For Adsorption And Release Of Doxorubicin, Iman Najafipour, Nafiseh Emami, Pegah Sadeh, Adonis Amoli, Sareh Mosleh-Shirazi, Ali Mohammad Amani, Hesam Kamyab, Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan, Seyed Reza Kasaee, Ehsan Vafa

Michigan Tech Publications

This study reports the synthesis and characterization of a magnetic composite metal-organic framework, The Fe3O4@MIL-101-OH/Chitosan nanocomposite was used for the first time to adsorb and release the drug doxorubicin (DOX). The nanocomposite was characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM). The characterization results showed that the synthesized nanocomposite has a crystalline structure and good magnetic properties. Also, this nanocomposite has a high specific surface area (610.36 m2/g). In this article, the effect of pH, contact time, and drug concentration on DOX adsorption were investigated, and the …

Perceptions, Efficacy, And Adaptation Of Online Learning In Physics And Chemistry Education, Fun Man Fung, Jia Yi Han, Min Xin Pua

Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange (JETDE)

The COVID-19 pandemic forced a sudden shift to online learning in Physics and Chemistry in Singapore. As restrictions eased, researchers explored its impact through interviews with instructors and analysis of student data made available through a data lake managed by the National University of Singapore’s Institute for Applied Learning Sciences and Educational Technology. Interviews focused on instructor adaptation and beliefs about online teaching, while the data investigated student perceptions and changes in teaching efficacy pre- and post-pandemic. Analysis of the students’ course feedback indicated that Course Code C005 received more positive feedback from students, particularly towards the instructor’s effectiveness in …

Open Path Spectroscopic Detection Of The Hydroxyl Radical: A Comparison Between Broadband Cavity-Enhanced Absorption Spectroscopy (Bbceas) And Bbceas Coupled With A Fabry-Pérot Interferometer (Bbceas-Fp), Callum Flowerday, Ryan Thalman, Matthew C. Asplund, Samuel A. Badstubner, Adam K. Cook, Philip Lundrigan, Jaron C. Hansen

ScholarsArchive Data

Data collected by the BBCEAS and BBCEAS-FP instruments described in the paper "Open Path Spectroscopic Detection of the Hydroxyl Radical: A Comparison Between Broadband Cavity-Enhanced Absorption Spectroscopy (BBCEAS) and BBCEAS coupled with a Fabry-Pérot Interferometer (BBCEAS-FP)"

One Peak, Two Peaks: On The Effects Of Enhanced Evaporation In An Ammonium Sulfate And Succinic Acid Aerosol System, Julia Reynolds

Honors Theses

Aerosols, defined as suspensions of liquid or solid particles in a gaseous medium, are ubiquitous in both indoor and outdoor environments. They have significant impacts ranging from public health concerns to climate dynamics. In laboratory settings, aerosols are most often generated through a technique known as atomization. The atomization or nebulization is from dilute, aqueous solutions of various chemical compositions. This process typically produces a unimodal, lognormal particle size distribution with exceedingly rare exceptions. Colleagues in a different laboratory (Dr. Freedman’s Group at Pennsylvania State University), however, mentioned they observed a bimodal size distribution, a distribution with more than one …

Investigation Of Colorimetric Trends In Rare-Earth Co-Doped Ypo₄, Barit K. Essman

All Master's Theses

From detectors in scientific instrumentation to medical imaging devices and nuclear monitoring systems to LEDs seen in consumer products, phosphors are utilized in a myriad of applications experienced by both the general public and scientific community alike. For many phosphor applications, emission color and intensity are notably important features to consider. When phosphors are co-doped with rare-earth activators, the ability to predict emission intensity and color output becomes challenging due to competition kinetics and energy transfer between the dopants. During this study, correlation between trends in co-doped phosphor excitation and color output were analyzed to interpret optical behaviors originating from …

The Effect Of Polyethylene Glycol Surface Density Of Dense Brush Gold Nanoparticles On Insulin Fibrillation, Ethan Patrick Grier

Graduate Theses/Dissertations

The development of various neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease has been linked to the fibrillation of various proteins within the brain. Parkinson’s disease is specifically linked to the fibrillation of α-Synuclein. During the fibrillation process, the proteins take the form of oligomers, and exposure to these oligomers has been linked to various cytotoxic and neurotoxic effects. Once the fibrillation process is complete, the fibrils made have been shown to be much less toxic than the oligomer stage. This fibrillation process is thermodynamically favorable and is largely irreversible, so one course of action for treatment of these …

Removal Of Antibiotics Under Visible Light By Using C,N-Tio2 Incorporated Into Magnetite Mesoporous Silica Composites, Dwita Widyawati

Chulalongkorn University Theses and Dissertations (Chula ETD)

Water contamination, particularly from antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin, is a significant environmental challenge necessitating the development of new remediation solutions. A promising technique for eliminating CIP from the environment is photocatalysis. The synthesis of C,N-doped TiO2 embedded within magnetite mesoporous silica (MSI) composites is prepared to serve as a promising semiconductor catalyst for photodegradation under visible illumination. Tetrabutyl titanate (TBOT), glucose, and urea are used as precursors in the sol-gel synthesis process, which controls elemental ratios to produce a unique mesoporous composite material intended to improve antibiotic photodegradation in the presence of visible light. Comparisons showed significant differences between capped …

Gel Based Sensing Platforms For Ammonia Detection, Patita Salee

Chulalongkorn University Theses and Dissertations (Chula ETD)

This research focuses on the development of two biopolymer-based colorimetric platforms for ammonia detection in environmental water and gaseous samples. To detect ammonia in water samples, an agarose hydrogel membrane containing salicylate, hypochlorite, and sodium nitroprusside was incorporated into a flow analysis system to perform the Berthelot reaction within the gel. Ammonium in the sample was converted to monochloramine in an alkaline reagent stream, and its subsequent interaction with the sensing membrane yielded an indosalicylate blue chromophore, causing the gel to change from pale yellow to green–blue as the ammonia concentration increased. Under the optimal operating conditions, the method provided …

Alpha-Synuclein Interaction With Gedunin, Tony Matundura Nyabayo

Graduate Theses/Dissertations

Parkinson’s disease (PD) and other Proteinopathies develop when α-synuclein misfolds and aggregates into toxic amyloids. While existing treatments for PD are primarily focused on managing its symptoms, a viable solution for slowing down the progress of Parkinson’s disease involves targeting the toxic α-synuclein amyloids. Gedunin, a natural inhibitor of heat shock protein 90, has been extensively used to treat malaria. Also, recent research investigations have shed light on its potential beyond malaria therapy, indicating that Gedunin may offer a possible solution for treating a variety of neurodegenerative diseases. Using plate-based assays, we examined how Gedunin influences α-synuclein fibrillation and its …

Lc-Ms Discriminates Between Effects Of Sulfur Nanoparticles Vs Molybdenum Disulfide Nanoparticles On Lettuce (Lactuca Sativa), Mary Fakunle

Graduate Theses/Dissertations

Nanotechnology is gaining attention in agriculture, majorly due to their potential benefits in farming practices. Sulfur and molybdenum disulfide nanoparticles are reported to enhance plant growth, protection, and nutrient delivery. However, there is a need to understand how nano-fertilizers affect the metabolites and nutritional benefits of plants. Here, lettuce was cultivated under greenhouse in one of three treatments: control, 50 ppm S NPs, and 20 ppm MoS2 NPs. A method was developed on Liquid Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) instrument to quantify the concentration of amino acids and antioxidants in the harvested lettuce plants. Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass Spectrometry …

Evaluation Of Practical Methods To Determine If A Karst Creek Is Gaining Or Losing: Case Study Of Leith Creek, Elizabeth Jones

Graduate Theses/Dissertations

Karst landscapes are abundant in Missouri, with features such as caves, springs, and sinkholes that form through the dissolution of limestone. Leith Creek is a small stream in Polk County, Missouri fed by two springs and the shallow unconfined Springfield Plateau aquifer, a highly karstified aquifer which is made up of limestone and minor interbedded shale-mudstone units. To determine if Leith Creek is gaining or losing, stream flow, water chemistry and temperature sensors were monitored. Stream flow results required multiple visits to take measurements while temperature sensors required two visits, one to install the dataloggers and another to remove the …

Development Of Cyan And Blue Thermostable Fluorescent Proteins: Characterization And Structural Analysis, Acacia J. Jurkowski

Graduate Theses/Dissertations

Fluorescent proteins are commonly used as cell markers in living organisms. Modifications by mutation can be used to improve the qualities of these proteins including fluorescence, thermostability, pH stability, and chemical stability. The goal of this project is to use mutagenesis to improve the fluorescence of thermostable cyan and blue proteins derived from the thermal green protein (TGP). The first cyan protein developed by the DeVore lab (CTP 0.0) shifted the fluorescence to cyan but decreased the quantum yield (Φ_F) to 0.056. Further mutations were incorporated to increase the quantum yield through incorporating hydrogen bonding interactions to the …

Development Of Ligands And Metal Complexes With Weakly Coordinating Apical Elements And Their Application To Nitrene Insertion And Addition To C‒H And C=C Bonds, Meenakshi Sharma

Doctoral Dissertations

"We present a family of triangular coinage metal M₃Cl₃ complexes [M = Cu (I), Ag (I)] supported by antimony [Sb (III)], and bismuth [Bi (III)]-centered highly basic tetramethyl-guanidinyl [TMG₃trphen-E] (E = Sb, Bi) ligand frameworks with their applications as catalysts toward the construction of C‒N bond through aziridination and amination reaction methodologies.

The [(TMG₃trphen-Sb)Cu₃(µ-Cl)₃] catalyst gives better yields of aziridines with styrenes than [(TMG3trphen-Bi)Cu₃(µ-Cl)₃] with PhINTs as a nitrene source. However, the catalytic reactivity of both catalysts is enhanced by an electrophilic nitrene, PhINTces for …

Progress Toward The Synthesis Of Pyridine-Containing Macrocycles Using Dynamic Alkyne And Olefin Metathesis, Stephen Kwas , '25

Senior Theses, Projects, and Awards

Tubular structures are ubiquitous in nature and possess functions ranging from the structural ones played by microtubules to transporting necessary ions across cell membranes by membrane proteins. In addition, the excellent electronic and structural properties of carbon nanotubes have made them of great interest to chemists. Yet, the functionalization of these nanotubes is hindered by unselective post-modification, often requiring harsh reaction conditions. As such, the assembly of macrocycles into nanotubular structures has been widely studied by chemists. One such way to make these materials is by using dynamic, reversible reactions to synthesize pyridine-containing macrocycles in high yields. Due to inherent …

Forensic Characterization And Comparison Of Modern Nail Polish Products By Their Physical Features And Chemical Composition, Madison Meredith Lindung

Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports (ETD)

Nail polish can serve as valuable evidence in forensic investigations as it is often found on the hands and feet of individuals. Nail polish can break off and transfer easily during self-defense actions or forceful contact, such as in cases of kidnapping, sexual assault, or homicide. These residues can provide clues about who was at the scene, as well as where, when, and how the event evolved. However, compared to other types of paints commonly analyzed in forensic laboratories, limited forensic research has been conducted on the chemical composition and discrimination capabilities of popular nail products. The lack of information …

Approaches To The Synthesis Of Highly Substituted Arenes, Kh Tanvir Ahmed

Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports (ETD)

While benzene rings and their derivatives are among the most frequently encountered ring systems in natural products, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, dyes, and functional materials, polysubstituted arenes are relatively scarce. The analysis of FDA-approved small molecules provides valuable insights into the characteristics of successful drugs while also highlighting gaps in the availability of synthetic methods capable of efficiently accessing diverse substitution patterns on aromatic rings. Highly substituted arenes are typically synthesized through sequential modification of a pre-existing benzene core; however, this stepwise approach becomes increasingly challenging with each additional substitution. An alternative strategy involves the direct construction of benzene rings via annulation …

Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment (Ace) Winds, Matthew Wyatt, Peter F. Bernath, Chris Boone, Léo Lavy, Ryan Johnson

Chemistry & Biochemistry Faculty Publications

The Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment Fourier Transform Spectrometer (ACE-FTS) uses limb geometry to measure transmittance spectra of Earth's atmosphere by solar occultation. Line-of-sight wind speeds can be derived via Doppler shifts of molecular lines in infrared spectra. The wind look direction angles relative to geodetic North are derived from geometry. We validate the new ACE version 5.3 (v.5.3) line-of-sight winds with MIGHTI and meteor radar vector wind observations and find a ±15 m/s sunrise/sunset shift above 80 km. We also compare line-of-sight winds from ACE-FTS v.5.2 and v.5.3 with vector winds from the MERRA-2, HWM14, and WACCM-X models. A ±15 m/s …

Evaluating The Chemical Reactivity Of Wildfire-Derived Dissolved Organic Molecules: Glutathione Binding Through Kendrick Mass Defect Analysis, Hannah M. Hamontree, Patrick G. Hatcher

Chemistry & Biochemistry Faculty Publications

The emerging risks to organisms of pyrogenic-derived dissolved organic matter (PyDOM) from forest fires are of concern due to its toxic and mutagenic potential (e.g., pro-oxidative responses in fauna through the depletion of glutathione, a nitrogen- and sulfur-containing tripeptide found in cells). This study simulates this phenomenon in a laboratory setting by identifying bonding between reduced l-glutathione and organic molecules in leachates from environmentally weathered biomass samples (charred and uncharred) using Kendrick Mass Defect (KMD) analysis from formula lists obtained from negative-mode electrospray ionization-Fourier transform-ion cyclotron resonance-mass spectrometry ((-)ESI-FT-ICR-MS). These formula lists reveal a 10-fold increase in nitrogen- and sulfur-containing …

The Importance Of Atomic Charges For Predicting Site-Selective Ir-, Ru-, And Rh-Catalyzed C-H Borylations, Shannon M. Stephens, Kyle M. Lambert

Chemistry & Biochemistry Faculty Publications

A supervised machine learning model has been developed that allows for the prediction of site selectivity in late-stage C-H borylations. Model development was accomplished using literature data for the site-selective (≥95%) C-H borylation of 189 unique arene, heteroarene, and aliphatic substrates that feature a total of 971 possible sp² or sp³ C-H borylation sites. The reported experimental data was supplemented with additional chemoinformatic descriptors, computed atomic charges at the C-H borylation sites, and data from parameterization of catalytically active tris-boryl complexes resulting from the combination of seven different Ir-, Ru-, and Rh-based precatalysts with eight different ligands. Of the over …

Challenges Associated With Pfas Detection Method In Africa, Abdullahi Tunde Aborode, Ridwan Olamilekan Adesola, Ibrahim Idris, Waheed Sakariyau Adio, Segun Olapade, Gladys Oluwafisayo, Israel Ayobami Onifade, Sodiq Fakorede, Taiwo Bakare-Abidola, Jelil Olaoye, Adedeji Daniel Ogunyemi, Oluwaseun Adeolu Ogundijo, Olamilekan Gabriel Banwo, Adetolase Azizat Bakre, Peter Oladoye, Grace Adegoye, Noimat Abeni Jinadu

Chemistry & Biochemistry Faculty Publications

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of man-made chemicals that are widely present in many industries. Monitoring and analyzing PFAS in Africa is challenging due to the limited availability of mass spectrometry (MS), which is an essential technique for detecting PFAS. This review assesses the scope and impact of the shortage of mass spectrometry instruments in Africa, emphasizing the resulting limitations in monitoring environmental and public health threats. The review analyzes the existing PFAS monitoring, the accessibility of MS instruments, and the technical capabilities within the continent. This study suggests that fewer African countries have sufficient MS instruments, …

Nucleotide-Derived Bacterial Alarmones Attenuate The Induction Of Type-I Interferon Responses In A Murine Macrophage Reporter Cell Line, Ryan P. Kilduff, Erin B. Purcell, Lisa M. Shollenberger

Chemistry & Biochemistry Faculty Publications

The stringent response is a well-studied phenomenon in many bacterial systems and regulates resource-consuming activities such as transcription, translation, and replication. The stringent response is a well-conserved signaling framework, as are the nucleotide-derived signaling mediators, collectively referred to as (p)ppGpp or as alarmones. There is a wealth of research evaluating nucleotide-derived alarmone signaling in bacterial models, however, their potential to modulate innate immune signaling has not yet been evaluated. Several common pathogen-synthesized molecules, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and cyclic-di-AMP (c-di-AMP), act as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which are common patterns that alert the innate immune system of bacterial infection. The …

Synthesis And Luminescence Studies Of Europium Doped Zinc Lead Germanate Phosphors, Anika Nawar Chowdhury

Dissertations and Theses

Phosphors are luminescent materials that emit light upon excitation, which have significant uses in optoelectronics, bioimaging, sensors, security, and other fields. Inorganic luminescent materials are well known for their stability and broad applications. Among these, germanate based phosphors have recently caught attention because of their inertness, excellent chemical and thermal stability, structural flexibility, and unique properties. For optimizing the properties of the materials, impurities are added to the host intentionally, which are known as dopants. Rare earth elements are often applied as dopants because of their unique f-f transitions. Eu3+ is one of the broadly studied rare-earth dopants among these, …

Demystifying Misconceptions In Introductory Undergraduate Chemistry Education With 3d Printed Molecular Orbitals, Hiwot Endeshaw, Daniel J. O'Leary

Pomona Senior Theses

Spatial abilities are invaluable skills for the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects. However, women, people from low socioeconomic backgrounds, and ethnic minorities are more likely to have less developed spatial abilities, which is one of the many contributing factors for the lack of diversity in STEM subjects like chemistry. Teaching spatial skills to undergraduate chemistry students may address this issue and help increase the diversity of students who go on to continue their education in the subject. 3D printing technology in higher education has exploded in recent years, presenting a unique opportunity to teach “hard to grasp” concepts …

Modified N-Heterocyclic Carbene Catalysts For Polyurethane Synthesis, Charise D. Young

Pomona Senior Theses

Polyurethanes are widely used polymers synthesized from diisocyanate and diol molecules. They are ubiquitous polymeric materials with important industrial applications. Their increasing market value prompts the need for selective and efficient production which can be achieved through N-Heterocyclic carbene (NHC) catalysis. N-heterocyclic carbenes are heterocyclic molecules containing a carbene atom and at least one nitrogen adjacent to the carbene center. The nitrogen substituents on the adjacent nitrogen play an important role in influencing their steric and electronic properties and resultant reactivity.^1,2 There is a lack of a comprehensive understanding of the steric and electronic properties of NHCs and how …

Optimizing And Scaling Up Tcfh–Nmi Pyrrole Acylation For Organic Syntheses, Grant H. Miller

Pomona Senior Theses

Traditional ketone synthesis often depends on toxic reagents and hazardous solvents, which limits its scalability and environmental compatibility. The TCFH–NMI method has shown strong potential for amide, ester, and thioester formation, but its use in ketone synthesis has only been recently described, and only on small scales. This thesis addresses that gap by optimizing a scalable synthesis of 2-(monomethyl succinyl)-3,5-dimethylpyrrole using monomethyl succinate and 2,4-dimethylpyrrole as model substrates. Key reaction parameters were systematically refined to improve yield, reproducibility, and sustainability. The final protocol avoids chromatography, operates at room temperature, and consistently delivers high yields. These features position it as a …

Rwanda's Natural Remedies: A Fresh Look At The Fight Against Malaria, Leandre Nsabimana Ndisanze

Pomona Senior Theses

Malaria remains one of the most devastating parasitic diseases globally, disproportionately affecting sub-Saharan Africa, where Rwanda continues to face high transmission rates and rising resistance to conventional interventions. Despite decades of control efforts, the emergence of drug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum and insecticide-resistant Anopheles mosquitoes threatens to reverse recent gains. This research responds to the urgent need for sustainable and culturally relevant alternatives by exploring the therapeutic potential of Rwandan traditional medicinal plants. These indigenous remedies, long used by local healers, offer an underexplored reservoir of bioactive compounds that may provide the basis for novel antimalarial drugs.

The central hypothesis of this …