Microbiology Commons^™

Longitudinal Tracking Of Cytokines After Acute Exposure To Tuberculosis: Association Of Distinct Cytokine Patterns With Protection And Disease Development, Rabia Hussain, Najeeha Talat, Firdaus Shahid, Ghaffar Dawood

Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine

Household contacts (HCs) of patients with tuberculosis (TB) are at higher risk of infection as well as the development of active disease. Longitudinal tracking of antigen-specific cytokines after acute exposure may significantly advance our understanding of the dynamic changes in cytokine patterns associated with disease establishment. To achieve this objective, we carried out a prospective cohort study with healthy HCs after exposure to TB. The patterns of cytokines (gamma interferon [IFN-gamma] and interleukin 10 [IL-10]) in response to mycobacterial antigens (culture filtrate [CF] proteins) and nonspecific mitogens (phytohemagglutinin [PHA] and lipopolysaccharide [LPS]) were assessed at 0, 6, 12, and 24 …

Genomic Resources For Myzus Persicae: Est Sequencing, Snp Identification, And Microarray Design, John S. Ramsey, Alex C. C. Wilson, Marin De Vos, Qi Sun, Cecilia Tamborindeguy, Agnese Winfield, Gaynor Malloch, Dawn M. Smith, Brian Fenton, Stewart M. Gray, Georg Jander

Biology Articles and Papers

Backgorund

The green peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer), is a world-wide insect pest capable of infesting more than 40 plant families, including many crop species. However, despite the significant damage inflicted by M. persicae in agricultural systems through direct feeding damage and by its ability to transmit plant viruses, limited genomic information is available for this species.

Results

Sequencing of 16 M. persicae cDNA libraries generated 26,669 expressed sequence tags (ESTs). Aphids for library construction were raised on Arabidopsis thaliana, Nicotiana benthamiana, Brassica oleracea, B. napus, and Physalis floridana (with and without Potato leafroll virus infection). The …

Design, Synthesis, And Evaluation Of 10-N-Substituted Acridones As Novel Chemosensitizers In Plasmodium Falciparum, Jane X. Kelly, Martin J. Smilkstein, Roland A. Cooper, Kristin D. Lane, Robert A. Johnson, Aaron Janowsky, Rozalia A. Dodean, Rolf Winter, Michael Riscoe

Collected Faculty Scholarship

A series of novel 10-N-substituted acridones, bearing alkyl side chains with tertiary amine groups at the terminal position, were designed, synthesized, and evaluated for the ability to enhance the potency of quinoline drugs against multidrug-resistant (MDR) Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites. A number of acridone derivatives, with side chains bridged three or more carbon atoms apart between the ring nitrogen and terminal nitrogen, demonstrated chloroquine (CQ)-chemosensitizing activity against the MDR strain of P. falciparum (Dd2). Isobologram analysis revealed that selected candidates demonstrated significant synergy with CQ in the CQ-resistant (CQR) parasite Dd2 but only additive (or indifferent) interaction in the CQ-sensitive …

Detecting Shifts In Soil Microbial Community Structure And Function Post Landspread Of Manure Or Biosolids Containing Antimicrobial Chemicals, Kelly Lehnert, Sharon A. Clay, Susan Gibson, Volker Brozel

Agronomy, Horticulture and Plant Science Faculty Publications

Soil microbial diversity and community interaction play an indispensable role in 2,4-dichorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) herbicide degradation. The addition of manure or municipal waste biosolids through landspreading may alter soil community structure and function if these materials contain antimicrobial chemicals like chlortetracycline (CTC), administered in livestock feed to promote animal growth and health or tetracycline (TET) utilized in human health. In this study, soil applied with manure collected from pigs fed standard CTC levels was compared to soil containing manure from control pigs fed no CTC, and a comparison of soil applied with biosolids containing TET or without TET to distinguish …

Stenoxybacter Acetivorans Gen. Nov., Sp. Nov., An Acetate-Oxidizing Obligate Microaerophile Among Diverse O2-Consuming Bacteria From Termite Guts, John T. Wertz, John A. Breznak

University Faculty Publications and Creative Works

In termite hindguts, fermentative production of acetate - a major carbon and energy source for the insect - depends on efficient removal of inwardly diffusing oxygen by microbes residing on and near the hindgut wall. However, little is known about the identity of these organisms or about the substrate(s) used to support their respiratory activity. A cultivation-based approach was used to isolate O2-consuming organisms from hindguts of Reticulitermes flavipes. A consistently greater (albeit not statistically significant) number of colonies developed under hypoxia (2% [vol/vol] O 2) than under air, and the increase coincided with the appearance of morphologically distinct colonies …

Physiological Ecology Of Stenoxybacter Acetivorans, An Obligate Microaerophile In Termite Guts, John T. Wertz, John A. Breznak

University Faculty Publications and Creative Works

Stenoxybacter acetivorans is a newly described, obligately microaerophilic β-proteobacterium that is abundant in the acetate-rich hindgut of Reticulitermes. Here we tested the hypotheses that cells are located in the hypoxic, peripheral region of Reticulitermes flavipes hindguts and use acetate to fuel their O2-consuming respiratory activity in situ. Physical fractionation of R. flavipes guts, followed by limited-cycle PCR with S. acetivorans-specific 16S rRNA gene primers, indicated that cells of this organism were indeed located primarily among the microbiota colonizing the hindgut wall. Likewise, reverse transcriptase PCR of hindgut RNA revealed S. acetivorans-specific transcripts for acetate-activating enzymes that were also found in …

The Potential Role Of Probiotics In Reducing Poverty-Associated Infections In Developing Countries, Kingsley Anukam

Data and Test Instruments

Probiotics are defined by the Food and Agricultural Organization/ World Health Organization as “live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host” [1]. The potential benefits of their use have not been adequately investigated, especially in the developing world. Japan introduced Yakult, a probiotic fermented food drink in 1935, and in the Northern hemisphere, research and use of probiotics has gained an unprecedented momentum in the last decade [2]. Use of probiotics is not uncommon in Europe [3], but in many developing countries use of probiotics in its present definition is a foreign concept. …

Characterization Of Mazfsa, An Endoribonuclease From Staphylococcus Aureus, Zhibiao Fu, Niles P. Donegan, Guido Memmi, Ambrose L. Cheung

Dartmouth Scholarship

The mazEF homologs of Staphylococcus aureus, designated mazEF(sa), have been shown to cotranscribe with the sigB operon under stress conditions. In this study, we showed that MazEF(Sa), as with their Escherichia coli counterparts, compose a toxin-antitoxin module wherein MazF(Sa) leads to rapid cell growth arrest and loss in viable CFU upon overexpression. MazF(Sa) is a novel sequence-specific endoribonuclease which cleaves mRNA to inhibit protein synthesis. Using ctpA mRNA as the model substrate both in vitro and in vivo, we demonstrated that MazF(Sa) cleaves single-strand RNA preferentially at the 5' side of the first U or 3' side of the second …

Impact Of Carbon Sources On Growth And Oxalate Synthesis By The Phytopathogenic Fungus Sclerotinia Sclerotiorum, Bryan Culbertson, Jaymie Krone, Erastus Gatebe, Norbert Furumo, Steven Daniel

Faculty Research & Creative Activity

The impact of various supplemental carbon sources (oxalate, glyoxylate, glycolate, pyruvate, formate, malate, acetate, and succinate) on growth and oxalate formation (i.e., oxalogenesis) by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum was studied. With isolates D-E7, 105, W-B10, and Arg-L of S. sclerotiorum, growth in an undefined broth medium (0.1% soytone; pH 5) with 25 mM glucose and 25 mM supplemental carbon source was increased by the addition of malate and succinate. Oxalate accumulation occurred in the presence of glucose and a supplemental carbon source, with malate, acetate, and succinate supporting the most oxalate synthesis. With S. sclerotiorum Arg-L, oxalate-to-biomass ratios, an indicator of oxalogenic …

Impact Of Carbon Sources On Growth And Oxalate Synthesis By The Phytopathogenic Fungus Sclerotinia Sclerotiorum, Bryan J. Culbertson, Jaymie Krone, Erastus Gatebe, Norbert C. Furumo, Steven L. Daniel

Faculty Research & Creative Activity

The impact of various supplemental carbon sources (oxalate, glyoxylate, glycolate, pyruvate, formate, malate, acetate, and succinate) on growth and oxalate formation (i.e., oxalogenesis) by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum was studied. With isolates D-E7, 105, W-B10, and Arg-L of S. sclerotiorum, growth in an undefined broth medium (0.1% soytone; pH 5) with 25 mM glucose and 25 mM supplemental carbon source was increased by the addition of malate and succinate. Oxalate accumulation occurred in the presence of glucose and a supplemental carbon source, with malate, acetate, and succinate supporting the most oxalate synthesis. With S. sclerotiorum Arg-L, oxalate-to-biomass ratios, an indicator of oxalogenic …

Impact Of Carbon Sources On Growth And Oxalate Synthesis By The Phytopathogenic Fungus Sclerotinia Sclerotiorum, Steven L. Daniel, Bryan J. Culbertson, Jaymie Krone, Norbert Furumo

Faculty Research & Creative Activity

The impact of various supplemental carbon sources (oxalate, glyoxylate, glycolate, pyruvate, formate, malate, acetate, and succinate) on growth and oxalate formation (i.e., oxalogenesis) by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum was studied. With isolates D-E7, 105, W-B10, and Arg-L of S. sclerotiorum, growth in an undefined broth medium (0.1% soytone; pH 5) with 25 mM glucose and 25 mM supplemental carbon source was increased by the addition of malate and succinate. Oxalate accumulation occurred in the presence of glucose and a supplemental carbon source, with malate, acetate, and succinate supporting the most oxalate synthesis. With S. sclerotiorum Arg-L, oxalate-to-biomass ratios, an indicator of oxalogenic …

Biophysical Study Of The Sh2 Domain Of Human Tensin, Yogesh Mohan Kulkarni

Doctoral Dissertations

Cell migration is a key characteristic of embryogenesis, inflammation, wound healing, tumor cell metastasis and a broad range of other normal and pathological processes. Accumulating evidence suggests that the protein tensin provides a physical link between transmembrane receptors, proteins commonly associated with signal transduction, and the actin cytoskeleton. Adhesion involves three broad classes of macromolecules: ExtraCellular Matrix (ECM) molecules, transmembrane adhesion receptors, and intracellular adhesion plaque proteins. Tensin is particularly enriched in Fibrillar Adhesions (FA's), though it is also present to a modest extent in Focal Contacts (FC's). Src Homology 2 (SH2) domains function in the transmission of molecular signals …

Bactericidal Effects Of Cold Plasma Technology On Geobacillus Stearothermophilus And Bacillus Cereus Microorganisms, Angela D. Morris, Gayle B. Mccombs, Susan L. Tolle, Mounir Laroussi, Wayne L. Hynes

Dental Hygiene Faculty Publications

Cold plasma is a state of matter that contains a large number of particles that are electrically charged. Plasmas generate chemically reactive species and ultraviolet radiation making them useful in decontamination applications (Kong & Laroussi, 2003). Research regarding the inactivation of gram-positive bacteria by cold plasma has been studied by Laroussi et al (2003); however, there is limited research regarding the germicidal effectiveness of cold plasma on Geobacillus stearothermophilus and Bacillus cereus microorganisms. The purpose of this study was to determine if cold plasma technology inactivates Geobacillus stearothermophilus and Bacillus cereus vegetative cells and spores. This study consisted of 981 …

Sheeppox Virus Kelch-Like Gene Sppv-019 Affects Virus Virulence, C. A. Balinsky, Gustavo A. Delhon, C. L. Afonso, G. R. Risatti, M. V. Borca, R. A. French, E. R. Tulman, S. J. Geary, D. L. Rock

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

Sheeppox virus (SPPV), a member of the Capripoxvirus genus of the Poxviridae, is the etiologic agent of a significant disease of sheep in the developing world. Genomic analysis of pathogenic and vaccine capripoxviruses identified genes with potential roles in virulence and host range, including three genes with similarity to kelch-like genes of other poxviruses and eukaryotes. Here, a mutant SPPV with a deletion in the SPPV-019 kelch-like gene, ΔKLP, was derived from the pathogenic strain SPPV-SA. ΔKLP exhibited in vitro growth characteristics similar to those of SPPV-SA and revertant virus (RvKLP). ΔKLP-infected cells exhibited a reduction in Ca^{2+ …}

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Root Colonization And Inoculum Propagules In Deciduos Floodplain Forests Of Southwestern Michigan, Usa, Peter G. Avis, Sara D. Foster, Paul D. Olexia

Faculty and Professional Research

We examined the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi of temperate deciduous floodplain forests in southwest Michigan, USA, and the relationship between soil moisture and AM fungal root colonization and inoculum. In four floodplain forests, AM root colonization was measured for roots collected from soil samples taken along soil moisture, micro-topography and vegetation gradients. An AM fungal inoculum bioassay was also conducted using these samples to measure the amount of infective propagules found across these gradients. Although soil moisture had no significant effect on either AM parameter measured, the effect of forest site was significant in most instances. We also found a …

The Plasmodium Falciparum Chloroquine Resistance Transporter, Pfcrt, Mediates The Activity Of Chloroquine-Resistance Reversal Agents In The Malaria Parasite, Kristin Lane

Biological Sciences Theses & Dissertations

Chloroquine (CQ) resistant Plasmodium falciparum is a serious problem affecting 3.2 billion people in over 100 countries today. Most endemic malarious countries are among the poorest in the world and lack the resources to replace the inexpensive and highly effective CQ. CQ resistance (CQR) reversal agents are a potentially inexpensive solution to restoring CQ efficacy. CQR reversal agents are drugs that have little to no antimalarial activity alone, but in combination with CQ, they increase dmg accumulation in the parasite and enhance the sensitivity to CQ in CQR parasites. PfCRT is a putative transporter located on the parasite digestive vacuole …

Antimicrobial Activity Screening Of Recombinant And Synthetic Varasin A Defensin From The Hard Tick Dermacentor Variabilis Against Various Bacteria, Julia A. Sharp

Biological Sciences Theses & Dissertations

Hematophagous arthropods, such as ticks and mosquitoes, rely on their innate immune system for defense against pathogens ingested in a blood meal as well as those acquired through injury. In response to pathogen recognition, the production of antimicrobial peptides, such as defensin, is typically upregulated. Varisin, a defensin, is thought to be a key component in the immunocompetence of the hard tick D. variabilis against Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease. To study the antimicrobial effects of varisin, recombinant varisin was expressed by both insect cells and E coli. Purification of the protein followed by enterokinase treatment yielded …

A Group M Consensus Envelope Glycoprotein Induces Antibodies That Neutralize Subsets Of Subtype B And C Hiv-1 Primary Viruses, Hua-Xin Liao, Laura L. Sutherland, Shi-Mao Xia, Mary E. Brock, Richard M. Scearce, Stacie Vanleeuwen, S. Munir Alam, Mildred Mcadams, Eric A. Weaver, Zenaido T. Camacho, Ben-Jiang Ma, Yingying Li, Julie M. Decker, Gary J. Nabel, David C. Montefiori, Beatrice H. Hahn, Bette T. Korber, Feng Gao, Barton F. Haynes

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

HIV-1 subtype C is the most common HIV-1 group M subtype in Africa and many parts of Asia. However, to date HIV-1 vaccine candidate immunogens have not induced potent and broadly neutralizing antibodies against subtype C primary isolates. We have used a centralized gene strategy to address HIV-1 diversity, and generated a group M consensus envelope gene with shortened consensus variable loops (CON-S) for comparative studies with wildtype (WT) Env immunogens. Our results indicate that the consensus HIV-1 group M CON-S Env elicited cross-subtype neutralizing antibodies of similar or greater breadth and titer than the WT Envs tested, indicating the …

Hormones In The Field: Evolutionary Endocrinology Of Juvenile Hormone And Ecdysteroids In Field Populations Of The Wing-Dimorphic Cricket Gryllus Firmus, Anthony J. Zera, Zangwu Zhao, Katherine Kaliseck

Anthony Zera Publications

Virtually no published information exists on insect endocrine traits in natural populations, which limits our understanding of endocrine microevolution. We characterized the hemolymph titers of juvenile hormone (JH) and ecdysteroids (ECDs), two key insect hormones, in field-collected short-winged, flightless (SW) and long-winged, flight-capable (LW(f)) morphs of the cricket Gryllus firmus. The JH titer exhibited a dramatic circadian rhythm in the LW(f) morph but was temporally constant in the flightless SW morph. This pattern was consistent in each of three years; in young, middle-aged, and older G. firmus; and in three other cricket species. The ECD titer was considerably …

Environmental Controls On The Landscape-Scale Biogeography Of Stream Bacterial Communities, Noah Fierer, Jennifer L. Morse, Sean T. Berthrong, Emily S. Bernhardt, Robert B. Jackson

Environmental Science and Management Faculty Publications and Presentations

We determined the biogeographical distributions of stream bacteria and the biogeochemical factors that best explained heterogeneity for 23 locations within the Hubbard Brook watershed, a 3000-ha forested watershed in New Hampshire, USA. Our goal was to assess the factor, or set of factors, responsible for generating the biogeographical patterns exhibited by microorganisms at the landscape scale. We used DNA fingerprinting to characterize bacteria inhabiting fine benthic organic matter (FBOM) because of their important influence on stream nutrient dynamics. Across the watershed, streams of similar pH had similar FBOM bacterial communities. Streamwater pH was the single variable most strongly correlated with …

The Effect Of Residue C:N Ratio On The Turnover Of N And C In Various Soil Organic Matter Fractions, Ana B. Wingeyer

Department of Agronomy and Horticulture: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

Identifying soil organic matter (SOM) fractions that contribute to soil indigenous nitrogen (N) supply and understanding their turnover under different management constitute necessary tools toward an efficient N use. The objectives of this study were: i) trace the endpoint of carbon (C) flux from residue inputs into SOM; and ii) asses the role of the light fraction (LF), mobile humic acid (MHA) fraction and calcium humate (CaHA) fraction as N sources for heterotrophic decomposition of fresh plant residues with contrasting C:N ratio. A long-term aerobic soil incubation was carried out on ¹⁵N-labeled soil samples from Lincoln and Mead, NE. …

Differential Resource Allocation In Deer Mice Exposed To Sin Nombre Virus, Eric Wilson, Erin M. Lehmer, Christine A. Clay, Stephen St. Jeor, Denise M. Dearing

Faculty Publications

The resource allocation hypothesis predicts that reproductive activity suppresses immunocompetence; however, this has never been tested in an endemic disease system with free-ranging mammals. We tested the resource allocation hypothesis in wild deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) with natural exposure to Sin Nombre Virus (SNV). Immunocompetence was estimated from the extent of swelling elicited after deer mice were injected with phytohemagglutinin (PHA); swelling is positively correlated with immunocompetence. After livetrapping deer mice, we determined their reproductive state and SNV infection status. Males were more likely to be seropositive for SNV than females (37% vs. 25%) and exhibited 10% less swelling after …

Isolation Of An Anti-Cd20 Single Chain Variable Fragment From A Naive Human Phage-Scfv Library, Amma Bosompem

All Theses

CD20 is a non-glycosylated transmembrane protein expressed on normal B cells, malignant B cells, and plasma cells, but not their stem cell precursors. It is an ideal target for antibody therapy because it is not significantly shed or internalized, and CD20 expression is generally not lost after antibody binding. Depleted B cells can also be regenerated after antibody therapy. Rituximab, a chimeric monoclonal antibody against CD20, was the first monoclonal antibody to be approved by the FDA for lymphoma. Results from clinical trials have shown that anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies, which can be used unchanged or as carriers for radionuclides or …

The Antibacterial Properties Of Brookite Phase Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus, Rupal Shah

All Theses

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), a major human pathogen, is a common cause of infections worldwide due to its high virulence intensity. By adapting to rapidly changing and uniformly hostile environments, strains of S. aureus acquire resistance to antimicrobial agents shortly after their exposure. For example, within a year of its introduction, S. aureus developed resistance to methicillin which triggered the development of other antimicrobial treatments. In spite of the various antibiotics currently used to treat methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) infections, antimicrobial resistance is an unavoidable consequence due to the selective pressure of antibiotic exposure. Thus, other prevention modalities are warranted …

Differential Response Of Various Spore Species To Sporicidal Disinfectants, Michael David Pratt

Theses and Dissertations

In the fall of 2001, letters laced with anthrax spores were delivered to various news organizations in New York and Florida, as well as to two Senators in Washington, D.C. Over 22 anthrax infections and five deaths resulted from exposure to these spores, and decontamination of the affected buildings was both time consuming and costly. Since these attacks, interest in sporicidal disinfectants has increased greatly. Many chemical sporicidal disinfectants are available commercially, but the exposure time required to sterilize can be relatively long. In addition, some spores are simply injured or inhibited by chemical disinfectants, but not necessarily killed. Studies …

Lipid Microdomains Are Involved In Adhesion Of Entamoeba Histolytica Trophozoites To Host Extracellular Matrix Components, Kriti Mittal

All Theses

Entamoeba histolytica is a parasitic human protozoan that infects 500,000,000 people worldwide annually. In the course of the parasite's life cycle, motile trophozoites breach the colonic mucosa, invade through the epithelial layer and extracellular matrix (ECM) and occasionally disseminate through portal blood vessels to distant organs. Membrane rafts are small heterogeneous, highly dynamic, sterol- and sphingolipid- enriched domains whose functional significance entails compartmentalization of cellular processes and regulation of cellular signaling. Recent studies reveal the physiological role of membrane rafts in adhesion to host epithelium in E. histolytica. In the current study we examined the role of lipid rafts …

A Serratia Marcescens Oxyr Homolog Mediates Surface Attachment And Biofilm Formation, Robert M. Q. Shanks, Nicholas A. Stella, Eric J. Kalivoda, Megan R. Doe

Dartmouth Scholarship

OxyR is a conserved bacterial transcription factor with a regulatory role in oxidative stress response. From a genetic screen for genes that modulate biofilm formation in the opportunistic pathogen Serratia marcescens, mutations in an oxyR homolog and predicted fimbria structural genes were identified. S. marcescens oxyR mutants were severely impaired in biofilm formation, in contrast to the hyperbiofilm phenotype exhibited by oxyR mutants of Escherichia coli and Burkholderia pseudomallei. Further analysis revealed that OxyR plays a role in the primary attachment of cells to a surface. Similar to what is observed in other bacterial species, S. marcescens OxyR …

Laboratory And Field Responses Of Target And Non-Target Species To Algaecide Exposures, Bryand Duke

All Dissertations

In order for water resource managers to effectively and efficiently react to algal growths that are prohibiting use of a lake, reservoir or stream, information must be obtained on the response of the specific algae in site waters to algaecide exposures. In the absence of this information, ineffective algaecides or excessive treatments may be implemented. Research on development of an efficient algaecide assay using site specific samples could contribute to better decisions regarding algaecide applications and increase margins of safety for non-target species. Since these laboratory experiments provide predictions of responses of algae in site waters to algaecide exposures, these …

The Influence Of Early Experience On, And Inheritance Of, Cerebral Lateralization, Culum Brown, Jac Western, Victoria A. Braithwaite

Veterinary Science and Medicine Collection

Cerebral lateralization refers to the lateralized partitioning of cognitive function in either hemisphere of the brain. Using a standard detour test, we investigated lateralized behaviour in wild-caught, female poeciliid fish, Brachyraphis (=Brachyrhaphis) episcopi, from high- and low-predation areas. Wild fish were bred and their offspring reared under controlled laboratory conditions. These laboratory-reared fish were screened in the same laterality assays as their parents. We observed differences between wild-caught females and their laboratory-reared female offspring in the pattern of lateralization (tendency to use one hemisphere over the other to process information). Conversely, the strength of lateralization (consistency of hemispherical bias) was …

Exogenous Farnesol Interferes With The Normal Progression Of Cytokine Expression During Candidiasis In A Mouse Model, Dhammika H. M. L. P. Navarathna, Kenneth W. Nickerson, Gerald E. Duhamel, Thomas R. Jerrels, Thomas M. Petro

Papers in Microbiology

Candida albicans, a dimorphic fungus composed of yeast and mycelial forms, is the most common human fungal pathogen. Th1 cytokines such as interleukin-2 (IL-2), gamma interferon (IFN-γ), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), which are induced by macrophage IL-12, are critical to resistance against systemic candidiasis, while Th2 cytokines such as IL-4 and IL-5 are less critical. Farnesol is a quorum-sensing molecule produced by C. albicans that controls the formation of mycelia but is also a virulence factor. To determine whether farnesol enhances the virulence of C. albicans by modulating the production of Th1 and Th2 cytokines, mice were …