Microbiology Commons^™

The Small Intestinal Microbiome: Vibing With Intestinal Stem Cells, Victoria Poplaski, Faith Sawyer, Sarah E Blutt

Faculty, Staff and Students Publications

The epithelial lining of the small intestine mediates its absorptive and secretory function and thus is a critical component of human health. Regeneration and renewal of the epithelium is the result of proliferation of intestinal stem cells (ISCs). Many cell types and molecular factors are known to regulate the ability of ISCs to proliferate, including adjacent neighboring epithelial cells and the underlying, supportive stromal cells. The microbiome resides in the lumen of the small intestine and is in close contact with the epithelium. Due to its proximity to ISCs, it has been hypothesized that species within the microbiome have the …

Gene-Environment Interactions Underlying The Etiology Of Neural Tube Defects, Carlo Donato Caiaffa, Cristiane Sá Roriz Fonteles, Lei Yunping, Richard H Finnell

Faculty, Staff and Students Publications

Neural tube defects (NTDs) consist of severe structural malformations of the brain and spinal cord and are the second most common structural birth defect in humans, accounting for approximately 2700 affected pregnancies every year in the United States. These numbers are highly significant, considering that birth defects remain a leading cause of infant mortality in the United States, affecting approximately 120,000 babies born annually. Survivors of these congenital malformations face long-term disability and lifelong challenges imposed by severe physical burdens compromising the afflicted individual's overall quality of life. Clearly, birth defects, and especially NTDs remain a global public health challenge, …

Toward More Rigorous And Informative Nutritional Epidemiology: The Rational Space Between Dismissal And Defense Of The Status Quo, Andrew W Brown, Stella Aslibekyan, Dennis Bier, Rafael Ferreira Da Silva, Adam Hoover, David M Klurfeld, Eric Loken, Evan Mayo-Wilson, Nir Menachemi, Greg Pavela, Patrick D Quinn, Dale Schoeller, Carmen Tekwe, Danny Valdez, Colby J Vorland, Leah D Whigham, David B Allison

Faculty, Staff and Students Publications

To date, nutritional epidemiology has relied heavily on relatively weak methods including simple observational designs and substandard measurements. Despite low internal validity and other sources of bias, claims of causality are made commonly in this literature. Nutritional epidemiology investigations can be improved through greater scientific rigor and adherence to scientific reporting commensurate with research methods used. Some commentators advocate jettisoning nutritional epidemiology entirely, perhaps believing improvements are impossible. Still others support only normative refinements. But neither abolition nor minor tweaks are appropriate. Nutritional epidemiology, in its present state, offers utility, yet also needs marked, reformational renovation. Changing the status quo …

Development Of Duplex Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (Dlamp) For Detection Of Carbapenem Antibiotic-Resistant Genes Kpc And Ndm, Nindi Syahputri Lubis

Chulalongkorn University Theses and Dissertations (Chula ETD)

Carbapenems are regarded as a last-resort option for treating a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial infections. Unfortunately, the prevalence of carbapenem-resistant genes has been on the rise among patients. Some factors contribute to this trend, including prolonged hospital stays, prior antibiotic usage, inappropriate or insufficient antibiotic treatment, and contamination through wounds or feces. The emergence of carbapenem-resistant (CR) genes gained significant attention, particularly after 2005. These CR genes are frequently carried on mobile genetic elements such as plasmids or transposons, enabling their transmission to other bacteria. Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC) and New delhi metallo-β-lactamase (NDM) stand out as …

Screening For Compounds That Affect Innate Immune Memory In Macrophages, Intan Mukti Pratiwi

Chulalongkorn University Theses and Dissertations (Chula ETD)

Innate immunity, the first line of defense against pathogens, is characterized by a rapid response, limited specificity, and lack of memory for future insults. However, recent evidence indicates that components of innate immunity, such as monocytes, macrophages, and natural killer cells, exhibit memory-like responses, known as trained immunity. Trained immunity involves metabolic reprogramming and epigenetic modifications to regulate the expression of inflammation-related genes. Dysregulation of trained immunity can lead to diseases, making it a novel therapeutic target. In this study, the effects of synthetic saccharides derived from the cell wall of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and synthetic cannabinoids on innate immune memory …

In Silico Analyses Of Diversity And Dissemination Of Antimicrobial Resistance Genes And Mobile Genetics Elements, For Plasmids Of Enteric Pathogens, Suad Algarni, Jing Han, Dereje D. Gudeta, Bijay K. Khajanchi, Steven C. Ricke, Young Min Kwon, Douglas D. Rhoads, Steven L. Foley

Animal Science Faculty Publications and Presentations

Introduction: The antimicrobial resistance (AMR) mobilome plays a key role in the dissemination of resistance genes encoded by mobile genetics elements (MGEs) including plasmids, transposons (Tns), and insertion sequences (ISs). These MGEs contribute to the dissemination of multidrug resistance (MDR) in enteric bacterial pathogens which have been considered as a global public health risk.

Methods: To further understand the diversity and distribution of AMR genes and MGEs across different plasmid types, we utilized multiple sequence-based computational approaches to evaluate AMR-associated plasmid genetics. A collection of 1,309 complete plasmid sequences from Gammaproteobacterial species, including 100 plasmids from each of the following …

The Type Iv Pilus Secretin Bfpb: Structural Analysis And Binding Interactions, Janay I. Little

Theses and Dissertations

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) causes severe diarrhea in young children. The type IV pilus (T4P) of EPEC, known as the bundle-forming pilus (BFP), plays an important role in EPEC pathogenesis. T4Ps are a family of surface appendages that are important for adhesion, colonization, biofilm formation, virulence, twitching motility and many other functions. One essential component of the BFP system is the secretin, BfpB. Secretins are a large family of integral outer membrane proteins found in T4Ps as well as type II and type III secretion systems, and filamentous phages. Details of the secretin structure have been limited to the overall …

Treponema Denticola Synthesizes C-Di-Amp And Encodes The Cdaa-Type Diadenylate Cyclase Cdaa, Claire R. O'Brien

Theses and Dissertations

Periodontitis is a form of oral disease characterized by dysbiosis of the oral microbiome, leading to inflammation, bone resorption, and in severe cases, entire tooth loss, affecting 42% of adults in the US. One of the bacteria most associated with periodontal disease progression is Treponema denticola (Td), an oral spirochete which inhabits the mouth in small quantities during health but which can dominate the biofilms that form during periodontal disease. The ability of Td to survive in a disease environment and contribute to the progression of disease requires the use of robust signaling networks. Analysis of Td cultures …

Characterization Of The Clostridioides Difficile Glycosyl Hydrolase Ccsz, Brian Lowrance

Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive)

Bacteria inhabit many of the harshest environments on Earth; persisting and thriving in conditions thought to be unsuitable for life. One common strategy to withstand these environments is the formation of a biofilm. Biofilm composition varies greatly, depending on the underlying community that produces it. Cellulose, a polymer consistently prevalent in biofilms, has been identified as a virulence factor in many pathogens and is suspected to be involved in pathogenesis by Clostridioides difficile. C. difficile is the #1 cause of hospital acquired diarrhea, which can range from mild to life-threatening infections. Biofilm formation is hypothesized to be involved in …

Characterizing The Rhizosphere Microbial Community Of Food Crops In A Changing Climate, Samuel Snider

Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive)

In recent years, there have been increased occurrences of food-borne illness in Canada, which is not directly associated with animal-related products but is caused by the increasing prevalence of pathogenic outbreaks in fresh produce. This can have health and economic impacts on the agriculture industry in Canada. As such, it is essential to better understand the plant-microbe interactions of crops grown in Canada and determine how climate change may alter the relationship. Plants can promote the growth of beneficial bacteria in the rhizosphere, which can create protective competition between beneficial and pathogenic bacteria. Changes in the environment of the rhizosphere …

Functional Residues Of Cjpata, Robert Lamont

Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive)

Antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria continues to challenge clinicians and threaten the lives of infected individuals. For this reason, new classes of antibiotics or new targets for antibiotic therapy are needed to circumvent this global health crisis. In Gram-negative bacteria, the enzymes peptidoglycan O-acetyltransferase A and B (PatA and PatB), are responsible for adding acetyl groups to the C-6 hydroxyl group of N-acetyl muramic acid (MurNAc) in peptidoglycan (PG). These acetyl groups are responsible for inhibiting the activity of lysozyme from host organisms that hydrolyze the β1-4 glycosidic linkage between MurNAc and N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc). The acetyl groups …

Connecting Antibiotic Resistance To The Environment (Care): Introducing A Novel Framework Integrating Chemical Cross-Resistance And Place-Based Engagement To The Blue Marsh Watershed In Reading, Pennsylvania, Jill Felker

Antioch University Dissertations & Theses

Antibiotic resistance is a serious health threat around the world. Millions of individuals are infected with antibiotic-resistant bacteria yearly, and thousands die from previously curable illnesses. Although antibiotic resistance occurs naturally, misuse of antibiotics accelerates the loss of their effectiveness. Public health campaigns focusing on antibiotic awareness have not effectively communicated and educated the public on this health crisis. New efforts to combat antibiotic resistance are urgently needed. This dissertation focuses on the ecological and public health components of antibiotic resistance research that must be addressed to decelerate antibiotic resistance. A new interdisciplinary theoretical framework was developed to Connect Antibiotic …

Oral Impacts On Daily Performances Among People Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus On Haart Era Attending Care And Treatment Clinics In Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania, Leonard Evarist, Irene Kida Minja

Tanzania Journal of Science

Oral disease/conditions are reported to have negative effects on the quality of life of People Living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (PLWHIV/AIDS). This study aimed to assess the prevalence and causes of oral impacts on daily performances (OIDP) and its associated factors among PLWHIV/AIDS. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 218 PLWHIV/AIDS attending two HIV Care and Treatment Centres (CTCs) in Dar es Salaam. The study utilized a structured interview schedule containing questions on socio-demography and a single item of global oral health measure on the perception of current oral health status (OHS). A Swahili version of an …

Antimalarial And Antimicrobial Activities Of Some Heteroleptic Metal(Ii) Complexes Of Sulfadiazine–Vitamin C: Synthesis And Spectroscopic Studies, Ikechukwu P. Ejidike, Mercy O. Bamigboye, Dorcas A. Fadare, Juliana B. Adetunji, Joshua A. Obaleye

Tanzania Journal of Science

Some new Ni(II), Zn(II), Co(II), Cu(II), and Cd(II) of mixed Sulphadiazine and Vitamin C complexes have been synthesized and characterized by different spectroscopic techniques such as FT-IR, elemental analysis, molar conductivity, and magnetic measurements. Both ligands used for this research work act as bidentate ligands towards the central metal ions coordinating through the nitrogen atoms of >C=N–, NH2 groups of Sulphadiazine and oxygen atoms of OH, CO groups of Vitamin C. Tetrahedral and square-planar geometries have been proposed for the complexes. The complexes are stable under atmospheric conditions. The ligands and their complexes were screened for antimicrobial activities against some …

Prevalence And Evaluation Of Multidrug Resistance Pattern Of Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Among Critical And Non-Critical Areas At A Tertiary Care Hospital Of Multan, Romah Ishfaq, Hubza Ruatt Khan, Mehvish Javeed, Muhammad Ikrama Tanveer, Asma Ashraf

Journal of Bioresource Management

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an extremely wide spread microorganism linked to nosocomial illnesses. Effective inspection of variations in antimicrobial resistance patterns of P. aeruginosa is vital for selecting suitable antimicrobial drugs for pragmatic treatment. The current research has been performed for assessing antimicrobial sensitivity profile of P. aeruginosa isolated as of a variety of medical specimens collected from critical and non-critical admitted patients of Nishtar Hospital, Multan. The isolates were detected utilizing standard lab practices, as well as the sensitivity was examined employing Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method corresponding to Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute (CLSI) recommendations 2019. Out of 373 samples, …

Chemical Analysis, Antibacterial Activities And Uses Of Leaves And Calyces Of Hibiscus Sabdariffa Grown In Dodoma, Tanzania, Sartaz Begum, Derick R. Mwakimbwala, Gideon Sangiwa, Valence M.K. Ndesendo

Tanzania Journal of Science

Preliminary phytochemical screening of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Hibiscus sabdariffa grown in Tanzania revealed the presence of secondary metabolites like steroids, tannins, saponins, glycosides, terpenoids, flavonoids along with L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and iron(II). Furthermore, both leaves and calyces showed antibacterial activities (agar well diffusion method) against selected bacterial species (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi and Shigella sonnei), but calyces possessed potent antibacterial activities compared to leaves. The results also supported the claimed traditional uses of this plant. When interrogated during the cross-sectional study in Dodoma region, 54% of the respondents claimed the plant is used to treat …

Host-Pathogen Interactions In A Changing World: Microbes, Mucosal Defenses, And Multiple Hosts, Brandon C. Labumbard

Graduate Doctoral Dissertations

As fungal diseases continue to emerge, research increasingly focuses on host-microbiome interactions and links to disease. Certain skin-associated microbes may benefit hosts by protecting them from invading pathogens. Seasonal changes in the host environment can also result in shifts in the microbial community and pathogen virulence – potentially influencing disease dynamics. I investigated how cutaneous microbial communities differ across hosts, seasons, and Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) infection status by sequencing the microbial communities of 1,100 leopard frogs at five locations across the US. Percent anti-Bd function varied seasonally and with Bd infection status. Bacterial communities also varied across locations and time. …

Isolation And Characterization Of Cellulose Degrading Microorganisms Generating Electricity Using Microbial Fuel Cell, Lama Fayad, Rania Amer, Ahmad Abd El Nabi, Ali Hammoud, Hoda Yusef

BAU Journal - Science and Technology

Global warming and the accumulation of organic waste constitute a serious environmental problem. Therefore, microbial fuel cells (MFC) are an eco-friendly device that have significant capability for the production of electricity using biodegradable waste as fuel. Microorganisms used as catalysts in the anode compartment, execute a principal function in operating MFCs. The present study was conducted to isolate and to screen potential bioelectricity generating microorganisms from dumpsite soil samples and also to construct a domestic dual-chambered microbial fuel cell (MFC). Streptomyces fimicarius was found to be the best isolate for the degradation of cellulose and the production of bioelectricity. The …

Prevalence And Plasmid Profiles Of Enterobacteriaceae Isolates Obtained From Individuals With Asymptomatic Bacteriuria In Okada, Edo State, Nigeria, Osarumwense Precious Otote, Maureen Uchechukwu Okwu, Osazee Ekundayo Izevbuwa, Happy Ovuerhi Oferiofe

Makara Journal of Science

Asymptomatic bacteriuria (ASB) is the presence of bacteria in apparently healthy individuals. Although, the prevalence varies widely with age, gender, and the presence or absence of genitourinary abnormalities, the detection of pathogenic bacteria in urine constitutes firm evidence of infection. The objectives of this study were to isolate members of the family Enterobacteriaceae from urine samples of research participants, and to determine the antibacterial susceptibility and plasmid profiles of the isolates. A total of 122 mid-stream urine samples consisting of 72 male and 50 female participants from selected primary and secondary schools were collected. The age of the participants used …

Rapid Bacterial And Fungal Successional Dynamics In First Year After Chaparral Wildfire, M. Fabiola Pulido-Chavez, James W. J. Randolph, Cassandra A. Zalman, Loralee Larios, Peter M. Homyak, Sydney I. Glassman

Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Sciences Faculty Articles and Research

The rise in wildfire frequency and severity across the globe has increased interest in secondary succession. However, despite the role of soil microbial communities in controlling biogeochemical cycling and their role in the regeneration of post-fire vegetation, the lack of measurements immediately post-fire and at high temporal resolution has limited understanding of microbial secondary succession. To fill this knowledge gap, we sampled soils at 17, 25, 34, 67, 95, 131, 187, 286, and 376 days after a southern California wildfire in fire-adapted chaparral shrublands. We assessed bacterial and fungal biomass with qPCR of 16S and 18S and richness and composition …

A Monovalent Mt10-Cvb3 Vaccine Prevents Cvb4-Accelerated Type 1 Diabetes In Nod Mice, Mahima T. Rasquinha, Ninaad Lasrado, Meghna Sur, Kiruthiga Mone, Haowen Qiu, Jean-Jack Riethoven, Raymond A. Sobel, Jay Reddy

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

Enteroviruses, which include Coxsackieviruses, are a common cause of virus infections in humans, and multiple serotypes of the group B Coxsackievirus (CVB) can induce similar diseases. No vaccines are currently available to prevent CVB infections because developing serotype-specific vaccines is not practical. Thus, developing a vaccine that induces protective immune responses for multiple serotypes is desired. In that direction, we created a live-attenuated CVB3 vaccine virus, designated mutant (Mt)10, that offers protection against myocarditis and pancreatitis induced by CVB3 and CVB4 in disease-susceptible A/J mice. Here, we report that the Mt10 vaccine protected against CVB4-triggered type 1 diabetes (T1D) in …

Do The Culturable Microbial Groups Present In Cutaway Bogs Change According To Temporal Variation? Pilot Study Based On The Midlands In The Republic Of Ireland, Gouri Atapattu, Tara Battersby, Michelle Giltrap, Furong Tian Nanolab Research Centre, Focas Research Institute, Technological University Dublin

Articles

Cutaway peatlands in the midlands of the Republic of Ireland are rarely the focus of scientific studies. The soil quality and related microenvironment have been severely impacted by peat extraction. Returning them to a ‘near-natural state’ would require greater insights into this ecological niche. The current research took the initiative to study the microbiology of vast cutaway sites in the midlands of Ireland. Peat was collected over two seasons in January, February and April. Homogenised peat was aseptically cultured on a range of specific and non-specific culture media. Microbial enumeration, Gram staining and other microscopic observations of morphologically distinct microorganisms …

The Role Of Dha In The Impact Of Trem2 On Microglia Activation And Alzheimer’S Disease, Michael A. Palmieri Iii

Seton Hall University Dissertations and Theses (ETDs)

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurological disease that is associated with microglia activation. An important receptor involved in microglia activation is Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2). Recent studies suggest that docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) could reduce the neuroinflammation that is associated with microglia activation. We hypothesized that when DHA concentration was increased, TREM2 expression would decrease, microglia activity would be inhibited, and a resulting decrease in neuroinflammation would be observed. We examined peer-reviewed journal articles from 2017-2022 that investigated the relationship between TREM2 activation and severity of AD symptoms, the protective properties of DHA against AD, and the …

Surveillance Of Antimicrobial Resistance In Veterinary Medicine In The United States: Current E, Juliana M. Ruzante, Beth Harris, Paul Plummer, Raissa R. Raineri, John Dustin Loy, Megan Jacob, Orhan Sahin, Amanda J. Kreuder

Nebraska Center for Virology: Faculty Publications

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global problem facing human, animal, plant, and environmental health by threatening our ability to effectively treat bacterial infections with antimicrobials. In the United States, robust surveillance efforts exist to collect, analyze, and disseminate AMR data in human health care settings. These tools enable the development of effective infection control methods, the detection of trends, and provide the evidence needed to guide stewardship efforts to reduce the potential for emergence and further spread of AMR. However, in veterinary medicine, there are currently no known equivalent tools. This paper reviews efforts to reduce the potential for emergence …

Genetic Characterization Of Resitance To Frogeye Leaf Spot Of Soybean, Gabriel D. Munoz Herrera

LSU Master's Theses

Cercospora sojina is the causal agent of the fungal disease frogeye leaf spot (FLS) in soybeans. Management of this disease consists of foliar application of fungicides and the use of resistant cultivars. However, fungicide resistance has been detected in C. sojina populations and characterization of host resistance genes is relatively limited. To overcome the latter obstacle, we aimed to identify novel resistance genes using quantitative image analysis of the SoyNAM population. Two image analysis workflows using ImageJ and PlantCV were optimized and implemented to increase reproducibility and reduce subjectivity. The quantitative measurements included disease severity, lesion count, and average lesion …

Evaluation Of Antibacterial Potential Of Artemisinin Extracts Of Artemisia Annua In Vivo And In Vitro, Arsalan Khan, Akhtar Ali, Imtiaz Ali Shah, Umm-E- Aimen, Waseem Ullah, Imtiaz Khan

Journal of Bioresource Management

To ensure universal health care, the World Health Organization recognized the significance of complementary and alternative medicines (CAM) and recommended the use of natural herbs and plants bearing therapeutic potential and fewer adverse effects. Therefore, Artemisia annua herb was evaluated for its antibacterial potential and therapeutic efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus and Escherichia coli both in vitro and in vivo. Artemisinin was extracted from Artemisia annua by chemical treatment. Subsequently, the culture sensitivity tests were performed on MHA by disk diffusion method to determine the antibacterial potential of the Artemisinin extracts against the test bacteria (in vitro phase). …

Research Article A New Informatics Framework For Evaluating The Codon Usage Metrics, Evolutionary Models And Phylogeographic Reconstruction Of Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus (Tylcv) In Different Regions Of Asian Countries, Mamathashree Mn, Kuralyanapalya Putta Honnappa Suresh, Sharanagouda S Patil, Uma Bharathi Indrabalan, Mallikarjun S Beelagi, Sushma Pradeep, Krishnamoorthy Paramanandham, Siju Susan Jacob, Chandrashekar Srinivasa, Shiva Prasad Kollur, Raghu Ram Achar, Ashwini Prasad, Shashanka K Prasad, Chandan Shivamallu

International Journal of Health and Allied Sciences

Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) is a major devastating viral disease, majorly affecting the tomato production globally. The disease is majorly transmitted by the Whitefly. The Begomovirus (TYLCV) having a six major protein coding genes, among them the C1/AC1 is evidently associated with viral replication. Owing to immense role of C1/AC1 gene, the present study is an initial effort to elucidate the factors shaping the codon usage bias and evolutionary pattern of TYLCV-C1/AC1 gene in five major Asian countries. Based on publically available nucleotide sequence data the Codon usage pattern, Evolutionary and Phylogeographic reconstruction was carried out. The study …

Artificial Intelligence And Machine Learning Based Techniques In Analyzing The Covid-19 Gene Expression Data: A Review, Santhosh K, Ajitha S, Sushma Pradeep, Kuralyanapalya Putta Honnappa Suresh, Sharanagouda S Patil, Shiva Prasad Kollur, Chandan Shivmallu

International Journal of Health and Allied Sciences

The novel Coronavirus associated with respiratory illness has become a new threat to human health as it is spreading very rapidly among the human population. Scientists and healthcare specialists throughout the world are still looking for a breakthrough technology to help combat the Covid-19 outbreak, despite the recent worldwide urgency. The use of Machine Learning (ML) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) in earlier epidemics has encouraged researchers by providing a fresh approach to combating the latest Coronavirus pandemic. This paper aims to comprehensively review the role of AI and ML for analysis of gene expressed data of COVID-19

Crispr Technology As An Antiviral In Dsdna And Ssrna Viruses, Cathryn Mayes

Theses & Dissertations

The COVID-19 pandemic highlights the necessity of emergency response and pandemic preparedness, especially for emerging viral threats. Currently, virus-specific vaccines and antivirals are the primary tools to combat viral diseases; however, broad-spectrum antivirals that target more than one virus species could provide additional protection from emerging and re-emerging viral diseases (Andersen et al. 2020; Zhu et al. 2015; Hickman et al. 2022).

Clustered regulatory interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-associated endonucleases have become recently utilized as potential antiviral strategies due to their high specificity, efficacy, and versatility (Najafi et al. 2022). While CRISPR-based antivirals have previously been used to target specific …

Super-Enhanced Marco Variant Drives Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Progression, Weei-Chin Lin, Fang-Tsyr Lin

Faculty, Staff and Students Publications

No abstract provided.