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Full-Text Articles in Art and Design

Designing With Theories: Producing Legal Design Diffractively In Courts Of Justice, Joaquin Santuber, Jonathan A. Edelman Jun 2022

Designing With Theories: Producing Legal Design Diffractively In Courts Of Justice, Joaquin Santuber, Jonathan A. Edelman

DRS Biennial Conference Series

This paper proposes Designing with Theories as an invitation to approach Legal De-sign practices and studies differently. We take advantage of a rich and diverse theoretical tradition that allows us to expand the applications and impact of Legal Design. Building on diffraction as a methodology, we articulate this invitation by suggesting seven theories and approaches to designing for justice differently. In a generative and provocative style, we ask seven times the question “what if we design for justice from X theory?”. For each theory, we provide the main assumptions, followed by sense-making with examples from a case study on Chilean …

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The State Of Inclusive And Human-Centred Design In Oral Healthcare, Isobel Leason, Farnaz Nickpour Jun 2022

The State Of Inclusive And Human-Centred Design In Oral Healthcare, Isobel Leason, Farnaz Nickpour

DRS Biennial Conference Series

There is an increasing body of work that explores the potential of inclusive and human-centred design to address challenges to our societies’ healthcare. However, there is limited evidence of the utilisation and understanding of these approaches specifically in oral healthcare. This paper reviews the state of inclusive and human-centred design in oral healthcare. A systematic mapping study is used to identify 50 projects relevant to inclusive and human-centred design in oral healthcare. The data extracted from each project helps to examine the nature of inclusive and human-centred design in oral healthcare, reflect on who is being designed for and with, …

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Designing A Tangible Augmented Reality Experience For Cultural Heritage Research, Anitha Nathan, Daniella Kalinda, Lucas Hrynyshyn, Ellen Reade, Ravit David, Ali Mazalek Jun 2022

Designing A Tangible Augmented Reality Experience For Cultural Heritage Research, Anitha Nathan, Daniella Kalinda, Lucas Hrynyshyn, Ellen Reade, Ravit David, Ali Mazalek

DRS Biennial Conference Series

The Tangible Augmented Reality Archives (TARA) is an augmented reality system developed to assist cultural heritage researchers in remotely collecting and assessing information on rare artifacts. Building on prior research, we designed TARA to address challenges faced by cultural heritage researchers, including limited access to collections, as well as the time and budget constraints associated with archival visits. In this paper, we examine the use of augmented reality to advance cultural heritage research, and describe a series of design explorations that explore tangible interactions with remote cultural heritage artifacts. These include a three-dimensional cube design, a two-dimensional prop design and …

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(Anti)Dialogical Reflection Cards: Politicizing Design Education Through Paulo Freire's Critical Pedagogy, Marco Mazzarotto, Bibiana Oliveira Serpa Jun 2022

(Anti)Dialogical Reflection Cards: Politicizing Design Education Through Paulo Freire's Critical Pedagogy, Marco Mazzarotto, Bibiana Oliveira Serpa

DRS Biennial Conference Series

Paulo Freire's critical pedagogy can contribute to politicize design reflection and practice, promoting a praxis aimed at unveiling systems of oppression and producing transformative interventions. Freire helps us reflect on why and for whom we design and provokes us to question design processes as anti-dialogic, reinforcing oppressions; or dialogic, promoting alliances with the oppressed in the struggle to overcome oppressive situations. To help designers critically debate and appropriate these practices and concepts, we propose an educational material composed of 16 reflective cards based on Freire's critical pedagogy. Throughout this paper, we present the theoretical-practical basis that brings Freire and Design …

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Design As A Practice Of Care: Feminist Perspectives On Preventing Harm And Promoting Healing Through Design, Alison Place Jun 2022

Design As A Practice Of Care: Feminist Perspectives On Preventing Harm And Promoting Healing Through Design, Alison Place

DRS Biennial Conference Series

Design as a discipline has traditionally positioned itself as an enterprise in service to capitalism, perpetuating the domination of wealth and the exploitation of la-bor and resources, but recent discourse in the field has increasingly raised ques-tions around design's social and environmental impact. These discourses typically address themes of inclusion, sustainability and ethics, but some have gone fur-ther to explore the potential for care to play a role in the design process. More than ever, an interrogation of the connection between design and care is need-ed, as issues such as climate change, social inequality, global pandemics and ag-ing populations require …

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Towards An Object-Oriented Design Ontology, Avsar Gurpinar Jun 2022

Towards An Object-Oriented Design Ontology, Avsar Gurpinar

DRS Biennial Conference Series

Object-oriented ontology, speculative realism, new materialism, and similar contemporary philosophies, proposing alternative theories to understand the world and relations within, became more prevalent and effective in the last two decades. However, expect several solitary examples; these do not seem to be having a transformative effect on design disciplines, theory, and practices. This paper initially introduces primary theorisations of object-oriented thinking and how these theories would inform design thinking, education, theory and practice. The author argues that this is not, by no means, an option or alternative, but is a necessity, an urging fundamental transformation waiting to happen, considering the current …

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Listening Tests For Sound Design: Faster Optimization Through Lower-Dimensional Parameter Spaces, Tom Barker, Joana Vieira, Frederico Pereira, Rui Marques, Guilherme Campos Jun 2022

Listening Tests For Sound Design: Faster Optimization Through Lower-Dimensional Parameter Spaces, Tom Barker, Joana Vieira, Frederico Pereira, Rui Marques, Guilherme Campos

DRS Biennial Conference Series

Listening tests are often an essential part of sound design but can be resource intensive to carry out. Where there are many degrees of freedom in the sound design parameters, the ‘curse of dimensionality’, means that the number of trials required to reliably understand the impact of a particular design variable increases exponentially with increasing number of parameters. When there is a particular design goal in mind (e.g. maximum audibility, pleasantness, etc.) this can be somewhat mitigated by using efficient optimisation techniques with online sound generation during listening tests -- whereby a black box optimiser iteratively moves the parameters towards …

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Sounds That Satisfy: Describing The Relationship Between Sound And Need Fulfilment, Gijs Louwers, Elif Özcan, Jasper Van Bommel, Sylvia Pont Jun 2022

Sounds That Satisfy: Describing The Relationship Between Sound And Need Fulfilment, Gijs Louwers, Elif Özcan, Jasper Van Bommel, Sylvia Pont

DRS Biennial Conference Series

Psychological needs of users as a basis for design are at the core of design practice, yet the importance of fundamental human needs when designing soundscapes has not been studied specifically. This paper investigates the relationship between nine fundamental human needs and the affective qualities and categories of soundscapes. In a free-labeling survey study, we collected descriptions of imagined sound environments for the fulfilment of the needs, as well as ratings of the perceived affective quality of these environments. We found that needs were associated with pleasant soundscapes, while their eventfulness varied. ‘Human’ sounds were a common category for each …

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Out Of Isolation: Designing Reusable Ppe Gowns Based On An Understanding Of Healthcare Workers’ Lived Experiences, Katherine Townsend, Sonja Sterman, Eloise Salter, Karen Harrigan Jun 2022

Out Of Isolation: Designing Reusable Ppe Gowns Based On An Understanding Of Healthcare Workers’ Lived Experiences, Katherine Townsend, Sonja Sterman, Eloise Salter, Karen Harrigan

DRS Biennial Conference Series

The paper reports on an AHRC-funded project aimed at mitigating the personal and environmental impact of PPE isolation gowns, as worn by healthcare workers treating patients with COVID-19. The enquiry was devised in collaboration with NHS and industry partners and is informed by empirical investigations into procured gowns and the lived experiences the health professionals’ wearing them. The development of an industry standard ‘reusable gown system’ requires negotiating various proximities: between safety and disease trans-mission; sustainability and medical waste; the needs of end users, regulation and cost; public and private stakeholders. The article contextualises the research problem and methodology, incorporating …

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Promoting Climate Awareness Through The Design Of Interactive Moving Posters, Ricardo Gonçalves, Sérgio M. Rebelo, Daniel Lopes, Artur Rebelo Jun 2022

Promoting Climate Awareness Through The Design Of Interactive Moving Posters, Ricardo Gonçalves, Sérgio M. Rebelo, Daniel Lopes, Artur Rebelo

DRS Biennial Conference Series

Nowadays, the ubiquity of digital media has promoted the establishment of novel Graphic Design practices that seek to better catch the audience’s attention. In the Poster Design scenario, we observed the appearance of moving posters, digital-based artefacts that include animated elements; nevertheless, as moving posters get increasingly common, the search for more effective communication approaches should be conducted. This paper studies the impact of interactivity on poster design. Computational and Artificial Intelligence approaches have been employed to design a set of interactive moving posters which can adapt according to the viewer’s actions and the surrounding environment. The current environmental issues …

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Diving In: What Will It Take For Consumers To Transition To A Circular Economy Ready-To-Cook Fish Product? Insights From The Uk, Hayley Alter, Emmanuel Tsekleves, Serena Pollastri Jun 2022

Diving In: What Will It Take For Consumers To Transition To A Circular Economy Ready-To-Cook Fish Product? Insights From The Uk, Hayley Alter, Emmanuel Tsekleves, Serena Pollastri

DRS Biennial Conference Series

To balance production needs with the need to sustain or regenerate the health of ocean ecosystems, stakeholders in the European fish and seafood sector are calling for transition to a circular economy. New industry methods will produce fish-based foods that consumers are not accustomed to eating so we ask, what will it take for consumers to adopt these industrial circular economy foods? Taking the Seafood Age consortium product prototype as a basis, we have created a design method for would-be consumers to reflect on their fish consumption practices and possible adoption of the fish product prototype prompted by a de-sign …

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Systemic Assessment As A Tool For The Design Process, Juan De La Rosa Jun 2022

Systemic Assessment As A Tool For The Design Process, Juan De La Rosa

DRS Biennial Conference Series

This paper introduces the idea of a systemic issue of misrepresentation of certain factors in the design process that could lead to ignoring the complexity and pos-sible impact of some design actions and artefacts in the system. By analyzing dif-ferent cases from literature, professional practice, and design research, a frame-work of initial analysis of the different factors that can assess some of the com-plexity of a project is presented, and a reflection is made regarding their signifi-cance and the elements they could evaluate from different cases.

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A Product-Service System Design Approach For The Frame Innovation Of Food And Beverage On Board Of Civil Aviation Aircraft, Paola Maria Trapani, Jiao Mo, Ke Ma Jun 2022

A Product-Service System Design Approach For The Frame Innovation Of Food And Beverage On Board Of Civil Aviation Aircraft, Paola Maria Trapani, Jiao Mo, Ke Ma

DRS Biennial Conference Series

A multidisciplinary research team from the College of Design and Innovation, Tongji University in Shanghai, in collaboration with Boeing, developed research on the future of in-flight Food & Beverage (F&B). The goal was to outline four possible scenarios, illustrating distinct product-service systems and highlighting how Boeing could help airlines create value for passengers. The research addresses three questions: How to guarantee F&B health and safety while reducing disposable packaging and food waste? How to optimize the aisle use during service without making the cabin crew's work more cumbersome? How to meet passengers' demands while staying on a budget? Dorst's (2015) …

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Musings On Vocabulary Choices When Proposing Design Towards Profound Systems Change, Gwendolyn Kulick Jun 2022

Musings On Vocabulary Choices When Proposing Design Towards Profound Systems Change, Gwendolyn Kulick

DRS Biennial Conference Series

The search for an imaginative vocabulary that encourages mind and behaviour shifts is not an easy task in processes of formulating design trajectories towards profound systems change. At the same time many design concerns are embedded in larger ecological, social, economical or political systemic crises and call for generating systems change across multiple dimensions. A prolonged terminology search when describing the theoretical and practical results of a PhD research into Pakistan’s craft sector through the systems lens triggered the interest in penning this paper about the entanglements of language and expanded design horizons and methods. While it can only offer …

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Birds, Bees And Bats: Exploring Possibilities For Cohabitation In The More-Than-Human City, Ferne Edwards, Ida Maria Corsepius Melen, Anna Caroline Syse, Ida Nilstad Pettersen Jun 2022

Birds, Bees And Bats: Exploring Possibilities For Cohabitation In The More-Than-Human City, Ferne Edwards, Ida Maria Corsepius Melen, Anna Caroline Syse, Ida Nilstad Pettersen

DRS Biennial Conference Series

Urbanization pressures are creating conditions for greater urban density. However, cities are home for both humans and a diversity of nonhuman natures, where heightened proximity between species can cause friction and conflict. This paper explores possibilities for convivial multispecies cohabitation in more-than-human cities. It grounds more-than-human theory through the application of three case studies – birds, bees and bats – based in the city of Trondheim, Norway. Drawing on three related studies, these creatures help illuminate what kind of spaces, needs and considerations are required beyond a human-centric focus in the urban environment. Issues to consider include disease, insecure land …

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From Explanations To Shared Understandings Of Ai, Iohanna Nicenboim, Elisa Giaccardi, Johan Redström Jun 2022

From Explanations To Shared Understandings Of Ai, Iohanna Nicenboim, Elisa Giaccardi, Johan Redström

DRS Biennial Conference Series

A key challenge in the design of AI systems is how to support people in understanding them. We address this challenge by positioning explanations in everyday life, within ongoing relations between people and artificial agents. By reorienting explainability through more-than-human design, we call for a new approach that considers both people and artificial agents as active participants in constructing understandings. To articulate such an approach, we first review the assumptions underpinning the premise of explaining AI. We then conceptualize a shift from explanations to shared understandings, which we characterize as situated, dynamic, and performative. We conclude by proposing two design …

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New Perspectives In Fashion Sustainability Through The Use Of Bacterial Cellulose, Patrizia Bolzan, Daria Casciani, Arianna Regaglia Jun 2022

New Perspectives In Fashion Sustainability Through The Use Of Bacterial Cellulose, Patrizia Bolzan, Daria Casciani, Arianna Regaglia

DRS Biennial Conference Series

Fashion constitutes a sector with a high environmental impact, particularly because of shorter product life cycles and an exponential increase in the speed of production and in the number of goods created, sold, or unconsumed and thrashed. This paper aims to explore new perspectives of design and production processes toward environmental, social, and cultural sustainability through bio-fabrication. After an analysis of the context of reference and a review of existing literature, the research focuses on experimentation with bacterial cellulose (BC) to investigate the limits and potentials of controlled growth, waste processing and integration, accessories creation and recyclability, and the assembly/disassembly …

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Is This Alive? Towards A Vocabulary For Understanding And Communicating Living Material Experiences, Hazal Ertürkan, Elvin Karana, Ruth Mugge Jun 2022

Is This Alive? Towards A Vocabulary For Understanding And Communicating Living Material Experiences, Hazal Ertürkan, Elvin Karana, Ruth Mugge

DRS Biennial Conference Series

Living materials are a nascent material class where living organisms are embedded and kept alive in the design outcome to achieve novel functionalities, expressions, and interactions. Experiential characterisation studies with potential end-users will provide insights for developing these novel materials for meaningful material applications. Nevertheless, the current literature lacks a vocabulary to communicate and discuss living materials in user studies. To bridge this gap, our paper presents the development of a “Living Materials Vocabulary” consisting of 45 descriptive items. Through a term frequency analysis of relevant literature and in-depth interviews with eight biodesigners, we identified a set of descriptions which …

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Deep Listening: A Framework For Collaborative Climate Adaptation, Eric Gordon, Yihyun Lim, James Paradis, Tomas Guarna, Gabriela Degetau, Mona Vijaykumar Jun 2022

Deep Listening: A Framework For Collaborative Climate Adaptation, Eric Gordon, Yihyun Lim, James Paradis, Tomas Guarna, Gabriela Degetau, Mona Vijaykumar

DRS Biennial Conference Series

This article introduces Deep Listening, a novel transdisciplinary research agenda and framework for collaborative climate adaptation. It argues for the urgency to develop a communication approach in understanding how frontline communities interact with mediating institutions. Deep Listening is presented in five components: 1) knowledge sharing (mutually agreed upon protocols for data production and use); 2) holding space (co-creating spaces where institutional actors and communities can exchange, learn from each other and discuss); 3) the production and sharing of climate imaginaries (where local or Indigenous knowledge and community values are respected); 4) sensemaking with a diversity of perspectives and scientific data; …

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Digital Toys As Tangible, Embodied, Embedded Interactions, Nicole Vickery, Dannielle Tarlinton, Yuehao Wang, Alethea Blackler Jun 2022

Digital Toys As Tangible, Embodied, Embedded Interactions, Nicole Vickery, Dannielle Tarlinton, Yuehao Wang, Alethea Blackler

DRS Biennial Conference Series

Our research aims to explore the potential that tangible, embedded, embodied interactions (TEIs) has in enabling children’s (age 3-5 years old) active play. This paper describes our study of 66 commercially available digitally augmented toys that have the potential to get children moving, and how these digital toys may be conceptualised as TEIs. During our analysis, the type and persistence of digital feedback from the toys was an important factor in our conceptualisation of these toys as tangible and embodied. We also encounter issues when conceptualising children’s toys, particularly toys for pretend play, as embedded interaction. These findings offer the …

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Exploring Diversity Perceptions In A Community Through A Q&A Chatbot, Peter Kun, Amalia De Götzen, Miriam Bidoglia, Niels Jørgen Gommesen, George Gaskell Jun 2022

Exploring Diversity Perceptions In A Community Through A Q&A Chatbot, Peter Kun, Amalia De Götzen, Miriam Bidoglia, Niels Jørgen Gommesen, George Gaskell

DRS Biennial Conference Series

While diversity has become a debated issue in design, very little research exists on positive use-cases for diversity beyond scholarly criticism. The current work addresses this gap through the case of a diversity-aware chatbot, exploring what benefits a diversity-aware chatbot could bring to people and how do people interpret diversity when being presented with it. In this paper, we motivate a Q&A chatbot as a technology probe and deploy it in two student communities within a study. During the study, we collected contextual data on people's expectations and perceptions when presented with diversity. Our key findings show that people seek …

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Towards A Heuristic Model For Experiential Ai: Analysing The Zizi Show In The New Real, Drew Hemment, Martin Zeilinger, Matjaz Vidmar, Jake Elwes, Holly Warner, David Sarmiento, Robin Hill Jun 2022

Towards A Heuristic Model For Experiential Ai: Analysing The Zizi Show In The New Real, Drew Hemment, Martin Zeilinger, Matjaz Vidmar, Jake Elwes, Holly Warner, David Sarmiento, Robin Hill

DRS Biennial Conference Series

Based on the rapid pace of evolving creative practice in AI arts, we identify an urgent need to develop frameworks for analysing the critical dimensions (including social/political) of this emerging field. This paper offers a comprehensive case study of The Zizi Show, by Jake Elwes, developed as part of The New Real and Experiential AI programme at the Edinburgh Futures Institute within the University of Edinburgh. Based on this case study analysis, we propose the structuring of distinct project characteristics into four categories (socio-cultural and institutional aspects; technology and media; artistic experience and affect; and audience and staging) which form …

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Designing Hair, Saúl Baeza, Kristina Andersen, Oscar Tomico Jun 2022

Designing Hair, Saúl Baeza, Kristina Andersen, Oscar Tomico

DRS Biennial Conference Series

Hair forms an evolving boundary between the inside and the outside of the body, it is both separate from us and a part of us. At the same time it is strongly directed by culture and norms. With this project, we disturb and shift these norms by describing a set of speculative design explorations on hair. We describe these explorations and outline the practices and techniques that are emerging. As such this paper constitutes a report of a set of explorations and points towards the possibility of hair as an arena for designerly work.

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Spatial Design + Service Design: Framing A Transdisciplinary Perspective, Annalinda De Rosa, Gea Sasso Jun 2022

Spatial Design + Service Design: Framing A Transdisciplinary Perspective, Annalinda De Rosa, Gea Sasso

DRS Biennial Conference Series

Design-driven praxis aimed at the transformation of spaces in relation to social and relational practices confront design researchers with the need to develop transdisciplinary approaches. If, on one side, it is impossible to envision a space without its subject matter – encounters, relations, and interactions between human and non-human entities –, on the other any type of service designed to be part of that place relies on a spatial dimension and its material reality is inevitably influences. This assumption raises questions for the design discipline: what happens when the design of spaces and services is intertwined? How can we design …

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Design Capabilities For Community Resilience: Towards Dialogic Practices And Policies, Mariana Fonseca Braga, Emmanuel Tsekleves Jun 2022

Design Capabilities For Community Resilience: Towards Dialogic Practices And Policies, Mariana Fonseca Braga, Emmanuel Tsekleves

DRS Biennial Conference Series

This paper draws on a pilot study insight into Brazilian informal-settlement communities’ problems, adaptative strategies and needs during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although communities play a noteworthy role in resilience, emergency and recovery plans often lack sufficient community engagement. This contributes to leaving particularly disadvantaged communities behind. Inequalities were further exacerbated during the pandemic, urging the deployment of plural and sustainable measures, which can promote equity in a global health crisis. Design can play a meaningful role in tackling inequalities in emergency and recovery. However, this role of design is still under-researched in resilience. We expand on related work analyses to …

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Design Elements In Data Physicalization: A Systematic Literature Review, Žarko Dumičić, Katja Thoring, Hermann W. Klöckner, Gesche Joost Jun 2022

Design Elements In Data Physicalization: A Systematic Literature Review, Žarko Dumičić, Katja Thoring, Hermann W. Klöckner, Gesche Joost

DRS Biennial Conference Series

Data physicalization is a growing research field that focuses on data representation and communication through the geometry or materials of physical objects. As part of this paper, we aim to contribute to the design-centric physicalization research by presenting a systematic literature review on the topic. We have identified and included 163 published and peer-reviewed conference papers and journal articles with primary data on physicalization artifacts. We have analyzed the sources from the point of view of conceptual and practical design elements. The results provide an insight into the state-of-the art research on design elements in data physicalization. This review is …

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Teixint Superilles: A Grassroots Project Of Participatory Design For Inclusive Public Spaces, Clément Rames, Mireia Lozano Carbassé, Lea Karrasch, Roger Guilemany Casas Jun 2022

Teixint Superilles: A Grassroots Project Of Participatory Design For Inclusive Public Spaces, Clément Rames, Mireia Lozano Carbassé, Lea Karrasch, Roger Guilemany Casas

DRS Biennial Conference Series

This paper presents the Teixint Superilles project which developed participatory design activities to create more inclusive public space. Our hypothesis was that when citizens have the opportunity to participate in placemaking activities, they gain not only greater awareness of their environment, but also a sense of agency over their city. Through a series of workshops, we have been experimenting with diverse methodologies for civic participation while confronting a wide range of participants with topics of gender, functional diversity, cross-generational inclusivity, and sustainability. We facilitated workshops in three different environments, thus reaching a wide range of participants: a public park, a …

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Reframing Homelessness, Danielle Arets, Jessy De Cooker, Vera Boonman, Lia Van Doorn, Manon Van Hoeckel, Marleen Van Der Kolk Jun 2022

Reframing Homelessness, Danielle Arets, Jessy De Cooker, Vera Boonman, Lia Van Doorn, Manon Van Hoeckel, Marleen Van Der Kolk

DRS Biennial Conference Series

The persistent negative framing surrounding homelessness in the Netherlands hinders constructive policymaking and has a damaging effect on the self-esteem of the young homeless (van Steenbergen, 2020). So far, no strategies have been developed to think beyond this persistent framing. In the design research trajectories Bouwdepot [building depot] & Beelddepot [image depot] journalism researchers, design researchers, social researchers, policymakers, and formerly homeless young adults, co-designed methods to develop new ways of representing homelessness. Utilizing Frame Innovation (Dorst, 2015), we co-designed and reimagined solutions going forward including the perspectives of policymakers, journalists, and people with lived experiences in homelessness. We have …

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Metaphors For Designers Working With Ai, Dave Murray-Rust, Iohanna Nicenboim, Dan Lockton Jun 2022

Metaphors For Designers Working With Ai, Dave Murray-Rust, Iohanna Nicenboim, Dan Lockton

DRS Biennial Conference Series

In this paper, we explore the use of metaphors for people working with artificial intelligence, in particular those that support designers in thinking about the creation of AI systems. Metaphors both illuminate and hide, simplifying and connecting to existing knowledge, centring particular ideas, marginalising others, and shaping fields of practice. The practices of machine learning and artificial intelligence draw heavily on metaphors, whether black boxes, or the idea of learn-ing and training, but at the edges of the field, as design engages with computational practices, it is not always apparent which terms are used metaphorically, and which associations can be …

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What Legal Design Is As Opposed To Could/Should Be, Sankalp Bhatnagar Jun 2022

What Legal Design Is As Opposed To Could/Should Be, Sankalp Bhatnagar

DRS Biennial Conference Series

How come legal designers keep relying on design things that make change appear possible when we know that legal things are more reliable at making change actually possible? We argue for an understanding of what legal design is as opposed to could / should be in terms of actual change (sensed as changes of a world) and the appearance of change (sensed as changed in the world). We describe what things and background practices are and do, what design things and legal things are and do, and what designers and lawyers or judges are and tend to do. We conclude …

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