Exercise Physiology Commons^™

Evaluation Of A Vivo-Morpholino Delivery Method To The Brain And The Affect On Physical Activity, David P. Ferguson, Emily E. Schmitt, Dr.Timothy Lightfoot

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Evaluation of a Vivo-Morpholino Delivery Method to the Brain and the Affect on Physical Activity

*David P. Ferguson MS, Emily E. Schmitt MS, J. Timothy Lightfoot PhD FACSM

Biology of Physical Activity Lab, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843

*To be judged in the doctoral category

Physical inactivity has been shown to be correlated to various disease and conditions. Therefore, there is interest in the genetic mechanisms that control daily physical activity. Vivo-morpholinos are a new molecular biology tool that allows for the transient silencing of specific genes in an animal model, thereby allowing for a systematic method to …

Exercise Blood Pressures Are Lower After Aquatic Compared To Land Treadmill Training, Alex T. Carradine, Brad S. Lambert, Nicolas P. Greene, Travis W. Constanzo, Steven E. Martin, Stephen F. Crouse

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Exercise blood pressures are lower after aquatic compared to land treadmill training

Alex T. Carradine¹, Brad S. Lambert¹, Nicolas P. Greene², Travis W. Constanzo¹, Steven E. Martin¹, Stephen F. Crouse (FACSM)¹. Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. ²University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA.

Traditional treadmill training has been shown to moderately decrease exercise blood pressures but the degree to which aquatic running alters exercise blood pressures has not been fully investigated. PURPOSE: To compare the exercise blood pressure responses after land treadmill (LTM) training to an equivalent …

The Correlation Of Physical Activity And Body Composition In Inbred Mice, Analisa M. Jimenez, David P. Ferguson, Dr.Timothy Lightfoot

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

The Correlation of Physical Activity and Body Composition in Inbred Mice.

Analisa .M Jimenez*; David .P Ferguson MS RCEP; J. Timothy Lightfoot, PhD FACSM RCEPCES

I would like to participate in the undergraduate category.

Biology of Physical Activity Lab, Texas A&M University, College Station TX, 77843-4243

Obesity is a growing epidemic related to physical inactivity, cardiovascular disease, and Type II diabetes. In smaller mouse cohorts, there has been no association reported between physical activity and body composition indices. The purpose of this experiment was to determine if there was a correlation between the physical activity level and body composition in …

Comparing Energy Cost And Maneuverability For Pushers Of Two Pediatric Wheelchairs Designed For Low-Income Countries, Alex Ott, Karen Rispin

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Summary: Our study compared two pediatric wheelchairs designed for less resourced settings, a wheelchair made by the Association of the Physically Disabled of Kenya and the Regency chair made in the US and distributed globally. The Regency chair outperformed the APDK chair in most aspects measured. Introduction: Many wheelchairs are donated to less-resourced countries by well-meaning organizations without regard to local, cultural, and physical conditions and without ensuring appropriate knowledge, tools, and support are present¹. In the last ten years, several organizations have been manufacturing and distributing wheelchairs designed for low-income countries, however few outcomes studies have been …

High And Low Active Inbred Mice Do Not Show Differential Expression In Potential Candidate Genes Associated With Voluntary Physical Activity, Michelle J. Dawes, David P. Ferguson, Greeshma S. Prabhu, Dr.Timothy Lightfoot

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Physical inactivity is associated with increased cardiovascular disease, obesity, type II diabetes and some types of cancers. Studies have shown that genetics play a significant role in the regulation of voluntary physical activity. However, these studies involve ad libitum access to wheel running, which may cause confounded results due to a training effect, especially in inherently high active animals. This study investigated the levels of gene expression of four potential candidate genes that have been noted to be expressed differentially between high and low active animals: Myostatin (Mstn), Calsequestrin 1 (Casq1), Glucose Transporter member 4 ( …

Effects Of Obesity And Physical Fitness On Academic Performance In Hispanic High School Students, Areli Garcia, Kyung-Shin Park

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Adolescents experience many changes in body structure and psyco-social functioning. Perceived obesity status and lower physical fitness are negatively associated with academic performance and the impact of these variables in academic performance may be different in males and females. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate whether levels of obesity and physical fitness have an influence on academic performance in Hispanic male and female adolescents. METHODS: Body mass index (BMI), one-mile run and curl-up scores from 1,401 Hispanic adolescents in grades 9-11 were collected (746 males, 655 females). Students were classified into three groups for BMI score using …

Effects Of Telephone Intervention On Maintaining Fat Loss And Physical Fitness Following Summer Intervention Program, Carlos Garcia, Kyung-Shin Park

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

It is known that children gain most of extra weight and lose physical fitness during summer months due to physical inactivity and an increase in food intake. Summer intervention may reduce the prevalence of obesity in children; however reduction in body fat may be regained after finishing summer intervention. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of 8 week summer lifestyle intervention and 10 month follow-up telephone intervention on changes in body composition and level of physical fitness in Hispanic Children. METHODS: 21 overweight or obese students (over 85 percentile in BMI score) aged 9-16 yrs …

Effects Of Negative Ion Energy Bands On Peak Anaerobic Capacity & Recovery, Kai Holtz, Kevin H. Kendrick Ph. D., John D. Smtih Ph. D.

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Effects of Negative Ion Energy Bands on Peak Anaerobic Capacity & Recovery

Kai Holtz, Kevin H. Kendrick, Ph. D., and John D. Smith, Ph. D.

Texas A&M University - San Antonio

Undergraduate

PURPOSE: To study the effects of a commercially available negative ion “energy band” on peak anaerobic capacity and recovery.

METHODS: Twenty one participants (age = 28.2 + 5.2 yrs, ht = 172.1 + 1.0 cm, wt = 83.3 + 17.5 kg) completed two, 30-sec Wingate trials on a Monark 817E cycle ergometer while wearing either a True Power™ Energy Band (TB) (True Power LLC) or silver …

Association Between Anthropometrics, Vertical Jump And Broad Jump To Pure And Transitional Acceleration In Junior College Baseball Players, Casey J. Bollier, Bryan Alexander, A. Eugene Coleman, A. Hatton, Chris Seponski, William E. Amonette

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Sprint acceleration is a key physical attribute in baseball players that can be characterized by two phases: pure (PURE) and transitional (TRANS) acceleration. In a linear sprint, PURE occurs from the initiation of movement to approximately 15-meters; TRANS acceleration occurs from approximately 15-meters until an athlete reaches top velocity. Since baseball fields are clearly marked at 13.7m (foul-line) and 27.4m (1^st base), acceleration can be determined in a sports-specific environment and these data may be helpful in characterizing player success. Purpose The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between anthropometrics, vertical, and broad jump ability to …

Exercising Metabolic, Ventilatory, And Cardiovascular Responses To Isometric Whole Body Vibration Exercise, Jorge A. Reveron, Cindy Goodson, Terry L. Dupler, Leah C. Stroud, William E. Amonette

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Purpose: To determine if metabolic, ventilatory, or cardiovascular response to isometric squats with or without external load was enhanced by the addition of a whole body vibration (WBV). Methods: Fifteen subjects (28.4±6.5y; 173.7±8.6 cm; 75.5±20.8 kg) underwent four exercise sessions with three days’ rest between sessions. The sample included 7 males and 8 females. Subject performed 10-sets of one-minute isometrics squats with 45 degrees of knee flexion standing on a WBV platform under four conditions: Unloaded, Unloaded Vibration, Loaded, and Loaded Vibration. Each condition was performed on a separate day; the session order was presented at random. One-minute …

A Comparative Study Of Two Pediatric Wheelchairs Based On Therapists' Feedback, Kristen Huff, Vanessa Parra, Karen Rispin

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Summary

Receiving feedback from therapists and seating specialists is an important part of evaluating and providing quantitative data to wheelchair manufacturers servicing less-resourced settings.

Introduction

There is currently a pressing need for research to enable proper donations of wheelchairs to less resourced settings¹. To appropriately serve a population of persons with disabilities in a given location, it is important to understand the specific needs of that population². People living in less resourced settings have a different lifestyle than those residing in more developed countries, and different functionality and design of wheelchairs is needed³. The …

Using A Lego© Nxt Robotic Vehicle As A Constant Speed Device In Replacement Of A Wheelchair Treadmill For Use In Determining Physical Cost Index Of Pushing A Wheelchair, Joshua Vanleer, Karen Rispin, Darien Harris, Micahel Dueck, Matthew Green

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Summary

A Lego© robot is being tested as a constant speed device to enable more sensitive data collection on the energy cost of pushing two different wheelchairs designed for low income countries.

Introduction

For many years, treadmills of all kinds including wheel chair treadmills have been utilized to enable energy cost studies to be done at a constant speed because there is a non-linear relationship between the speed of travel and the energy cost of moving. However, these treadmills are expensive, bulky, and simply not available in low-income countries where we have been collecting data on the function of pediatric …

Aging Impairs Ach-Induced Dilation In Skeletal Muscle Feed Arteries: Role Of Akt-Dependent Phosphorylation Of Enos., Meredith J. Luttrell, John Seawright, Daniel Trott, Christopher R. Woodman

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Aging impairs ACh-induced dilation in skeletal muscle feed arteries: role of Akt-dependent phosphorylation of eNOS.

Meredith J. Luttrell¹, John W. Seawright¹, Daniel W. Trott¹ and Christopher R. Woodman^1,2

1. Dept. of Health and Kinesiology Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843

2. Dept of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843

We tested the hypothesis that impaired nitric oxide (NO)-mediated, endothelium-dependent dilation in aged soleus muscle feed arteries (SFA) is due to an age-related decrement in PI3-kinase(PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt)-dependent phosphorylation of endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) on serine residue 1177 …

A Method Of Altering Coronal Plane Prosthetic Foot Stiffness For Studying Its Effect On Amputee Gait, Courtney E. Shell, Glenn K. Klute, Richard R. Neptune

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

In an effort to understand the effects of prosthetic foot stiffness on amputee gait and mobility, it is useful to produce prototype prosthetic feet that differ in stiffness. While many commercial prosthetic feet are made out of carbon fiber, the manufacturing process is ill-suited to design experimentation as it is expensive, time consuming and requires tooling modifications to produce design changes. In order to facilitate a study of the effects of coronal plane prosthetic foot stiffness on amputee maneuvering gait, we are manufacturing custom prosthetic feet using a form of additive manufacturing, selective laser sintering (SLS), that was developed at …

Binge Drinking Following Resistance Exercise: Effect On Muscle Power Recovery, Nosa O. Idemudia, Jakob L. Vingren, Harsh H. Buddhadev, Anthony A. Duplanty, Kiannah R. Williams, Joe Chua, David W. Hill

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Alcohol impairs recovery of isokinetic performance following muscle damaging resistance exercise but no knowledge exists regarding alcohol’s effect on recovery of performance in explosive isotonic movements following resistance exercise that induces only limited muscle damage. Purpose: To investigate the effect of alcohol on recovery from resistance exercise for explosive performance measures. Methods: Nine healthy men (Mean ± SD: 24.8 ± 3.2 years, 176 ± 7 cm, 86.4 ± 14.6 kg) completed 2 identical acute heavy resistance exercise tests (AHRET) separated by 1 week. The AHRET consisted of 6 sets of 10 repetitions of smith machine squats at 80% of 1-repetition …

Decrease In Knee Flexion Is Observed In A Three Set Tennis Match On Knee Kinematics During The Tennis Serve, Brad Fenter, Scott Marzilli, X. Neil Dong Dr.

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Tennis matches can be long, physically challenging affairs. The course of a match is often determined by the serving proficiency of both players. While the serve has been extensively studied, the relationship between the serve and match length specifically regarding knee kinematics is not well documented in a real time environment. The purpose of the current study was to determine the effect a three-set tennis match had on knee kinematics during the serve. Eleven male collegiate tennis players (age: 19.6±1.7) were recruited from The University of Texas at Tyler. All participants played a three-set match and digital video recordings of …

Do Kayakers Perform More Proficiently On A Rowing Ergometer Than Rowers Perform On A Kayak Ergometer?, Will L. Roszel, Ali Boolani

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Do Kayakers Perform More Proficiently On a Rowing Ergometer Than Rowers Perform On a Kayak Ergometer?

Will Roszel, Ali Boolani

Oklahoma City University

Undergraduate

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine whether there was a cross-over effect between rowing and kayaking ergometer times in elite rowers and kayakers. Methodology : Subjects (N=23; height (HT)= 180.34cm ±8.53; weight (WT)= 75.93kg ±14.19) were kayakers (n=8) and rowers (n=15) from a convenience sample of high-performance and/or colligate teams who volunteered for this study. After a ten-minute warm up, subjects were asked to complete 1000 meters on the kayak and the rowing …

Yoga Versus Pilates: Which One Is Better For Increasing Range Of Motion?, Audrey Castro, Casi Helbig

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Yoga versus Pilates: Which one is better for increasing Range of Motion?

Audrey Castro, Casi Helbig

Texas Lutheran University

Undergraduate

Pilates and Yoga are two popular types of exercise programs known to improve range of motion (ROM). The purpose of this experiment was to investigate differences between Yoga and Pilates in terms of ROM benefits. Subjects consisted of twenty college age students with no previous experience with either exercise program. After a consent form was completed, initial ROM was measured for each subject using a goniometer. The nine ROM tests included: sit and reach, right and left hip flexion, right …

Shooting “Lights Out”: Exploring A New Method For Improving Accuracy In The Basketball Jump Shot, Kim Hagan, Casi Helbig

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Shooting “Lights Out”: Exploring a New Method for Improving Accuracy in the Basketball Jump Shot

Kim Hagan, Casi Helbig

Texas Lutheran University

Undergraduate

Proprioception is the awareness of limbs in space and it is essential in order to be successful in the basketball jump shot. The purpose of this study was to determine if practicing the basketball jump shot in a dark gym would improve an athlete’s shooting percentage by strengthening the proprioceptors in the muscles, tendons, joints and vestibular apparatus. The participants for this study consisted of 10 female basketball players from Texas Lutheran University. The participants were instructed …

Effects Of Voluntary Resistance Exercise Training During Recovery From Hindlimb Unloading On Rat Gastrocnemius Muscle, Jacqueline I. Perticone, Kevin L. Shimkus, Yasaman Shirazi-Fard, Harry A. Hogan, James D. Fluckey

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

As research continues to examine the deleterious impact of long-duration spaceflight on human muscle mass and function, there remain gaps in our knowledge of muscle physiology, especially in examining how muscle’s ability to recover or rehabilitate from unloading may alter the results of multiple exposures to microgravity followed by 1g recovery. The purpose of this study was to analyze the effects of resistance exercise training of gastrocnemius muscle mass and anabolism during the initial recovery period immediately following a bout of unloading, as well as to examine the role that exercise may have on a subsequent period of weightlessness. This …

Gender And Stress Related Effects On Cardiovascular Health Outcomes, Michael A. Cedeno, Jennifer Blevins-Mcnaughton

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Title[j1] : Gender and stress related effects on cardiovascular health outcomes

Authors: Michael Cedeño – Master’s, (Tarleton State University), Jennifer Blevins-McNaughton (Tarleton State University)

Background and Purpose: To date, only a few investigators have compared the effect that stress may have on health and metabolic outcomes in college age adults. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which gender may play a role in self-reported stress and cardiovascular and metabolic outcomes in college age students.

Methods: Thirty-eight (N = 38) adults ages 18 to 28 participated in …

Pilot Study For Using Ecg In Pre-Participation Physical Exams In Collegiate Athletes, Bryan Ruiz, Matthew Massingill, Michael Cedeno, Jamie Cvikel, Steve Simpson, Joe Priest, Jennifer Blevins-Mcnaughton

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Title[j1] : Pilot Study for Using ECG in Pre-participation Physical Exams in Collegiate Athletes

Authors: Bryan Ruiz, Mathew Massingill, Mike Cedeno, Steve Simpson, Joe Priest, Jennifer Blevins-McNaughton (Clinical Exercise Research Facility, Tarleton State University, masters)

Background and Purpose: Disagreement exists in the sports medicine field concerning the best way to recognize and prevent unexpected deaths in sports. The purpose of this pilot study was to determine the extent to which using 12-lead ECG in pre-participation physical exams (PPE) meet diagnostic criteria for sudden cardiac death.

Methods: Twenty-seven (N = 27) Division II athletes ages …

Pilot Study For Pre-Existing Conditions In Pre-Participation Physical Exams In Collegiate Athletes, Matthew Massingill, Bryan Ruiz, Michael Cedeno, Jamie Cvikel, Steve Simpson, Joe Priest, Jennifer Blevins-Mcnaughton

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Title[j1] : Pilot Study for Pre-existing Conditions in Pre-participation Physical Exams in Collegiate Athletes

Authors: Mathew Massingill, Bryan Ruiz, Mike Cedeno, Jamie Cvikel Steve Simpson, Joe Priest, Jennifer Blevins-McNaughton (Clinical Exercise Research Facility, Tarleton State University, masters)

Background and Purpose: Disagreement exists in the sports medicine field concerning the best way to recognize and prevent unexpected deaths in sports. The purpose of this pilot study was to determine the extent to which suspect cardiac conditions were present during pre-participation physical exams (PPE) in collegiate athletes.

Methods: Twenty-seven (N = 27) Division II athletes ages …

Comparison Of Alter-G And Land Treadmill Training, Dustin P. Joubert, Brad S. Lambert, Nicholas P. Greene, Stephen F. Crouse

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Comparison of Alter-G and Land Treadmill Training

Dustin P. Joubert (Ph.D. Student), Brad S. Lambert, Nicholas P. Greene, and Stephen F. Crouse, FACSM

Applied Exercise Science Laboratory, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX

Purpose: The Alter-G (AG) treadmill utilizes a lower-body inflation chamber to decrease impact while running. There is little research investigating long-term AG training effects, particularly compared to land treadmill (LT) training. Methods: Ten subjects (5 male, 5 female; 37 ± 12 yrs; 83 ± 29 kg) performed a Bruce treadmill protocol to determine VO₂max at the beginning and end of 12-weeks of AG training at …

Physical And Functional Fitness Changes In Older Adults In Response To A Traditional Training Program And A Wii Enhanced Training Program, Chandrasekhar Bulusu, Sandor Dorgo, Rebecca J. Reed-Jones, Ashley S. Bangert

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

The Wii Fit Plus Balance program has been recommended as an alternative training tool for older adults to improve physical and functional fitness. However, the effectiveness of the Wii Fit Plus in combination with traditional training approaches in older adults is unclear.

PURPOSE: To compare changes in physical fitness measures in older adults (OA) engaging in two different training programs: 1) traditional exercises performed by the control group (CG) and 2) traditional exercises complemented by Wii balance games performed by the experimental group (EG).

METHODS: 35 untrained OA (mean ± SD Age: 68.86 ± 6.13; BMI: 28.89 ± 5.32) with …

Irritable Bowel Syndrome Disrupts Mental And Physical Function In Female Endurance Athletes, Emily B. Crohare, Jorge Granados

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Irritable Bowel Syndrome Disrupts Mental and Physical Function in Female Endurance Athletes

Emily B. Crohare¹(Master’s), Jorge Granados¹, Trevor Gillum², Matthew Kuennen¹

West Texas A&M University, Canyon, TX¹ California Baptist University, Riverside, CA²

Irritable bowel syndrome(IBS) is common among female endurance athletes. This disorder, characterized by recurrent abdominal pain, inflammation, and disturbed bowel function, can also contribute to severe anxiety, depression, and fatigue. Quercetin has been used to combat pain, inflammation and fatigue in healthy athletic populations, but its efficacy in female endurance athletes with IBS is unknown. PURPOSE: To determine whether …

Monocyte And Cytokine Responses Are Improved By Baker’S Yeast Β-Glucan Supplementation Following Exercise In A Hot, Humid Environment, Katie C. Carpenter, Whitney L. Breslin, Tiffany Davidson, Amy Adams, Brian K. Mcfarlin

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Strenuous exercise is known to suppress the immune system, which can increase the chances of getting sick in the hours after exercise. The purpose of this study was to determine if 10-d of supplementation with yeast b-glucan alters monocyte concentration, LPS-stimulated cytokine production, and plasma cytokine concentration in recreationally active subjects. Recreationally active subjects (29 men, 31 women, 22±4 y) completed 49±6 min of cycling (37±2°C, 45±5% relative humidity) after consuming either yeast b-glucan (250 mg/d, BG) or a placebo (sugar pill, PL) for 10-days prior to each exercise session. The investigators were blinded to the supplement conditions until all …

Influence Of A Short-Term Increase In Intraluminal Pressure, With And Without Recovery, On Ach-Induced Dilation In Senescent Skeletal Muscle Feed Arteries., John W. Seawright, Christopher R. Woodman

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Influence of a short-term increase in intraluminal pressure, with and without recovery, on ACh-induced dilation in senescent skeletal muscle feed arteries.

John W. Seawright¹ and Christopher R. Woodman^1,2

1. Vascular Biology Laboratory, Dept. of Health and Kinesiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843

2. Dept of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843

We tested the hypothesis that a short-term increase in intraluminal pressure, to mimic a 1 h bout of exercise, would attenuate or reverse age-induced impairments in acetylcholine (ACh)-induced dilation in soleus muscle feed arteries (SFA). In addition, we hypothesized that …

Effectiveness Of Isometric Handgrip Devices For Assessing Blood Pressure, Gurpreet K. Dhillon, Eddie T. C. Lam, Cheryl L. Delgado

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Effectiveness of Isometric Handgrip Devices for Assessing Blood Pressure

Gurpreet K. Dhillon, Eddie T.C. Lam, Ph.D., Cheryl Delgado, Ph.D., RN, C-ANP, James Ward, Dionna Kennedy, & Sohinee Kadylak

Institution: Cleveland State University

Gurpreet K. Dhillon (undergraduate, McNair Scholar)

Many health issues are associated with high blood pressure (e.g., arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis). Some suggestions to control high blood pressure include to adopt an active lifestyle (e.g., maintain physical activities a few times a week) and to pay attention to the daily diet (e.g., minimize salt intake). However, a few studies found that the systolic blood pressure of the participants dropped …

Neuromuscular Responses During Knee Extension Exercise In Combination With Different Blood Flow Restriction Initial Pressures, Jose A. Leal Jr., Sonio D. Garcia, Yoshiaki Sato, Michael G. Bemben, Murat Karabulut

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

Specifications of blood flow restriction training technique have been widely discussed to create a valid and reliable protocol. One of the unexplored variables is the effect of different initial restrictive pressures (tightness of cuffs, IRP) in combination with resistance exercise on neuromuscular responses and strength.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine any differences in amplitude (RMS) and median frequency (MDF) of electromyography (EMG) signals, as well as changes in strength during knee extension exercises with IRPs of 40-45 mmHg and 60-65 mmHg. METHODS: Twenty male subjects (age = 25.7 ± 4.3 yrs), participated in this study. They …