Other Genetics and Genomics Commons^™

Homocysteine Thiolactone From Translation Proofreading Is An Endogenous Ligand For Cell-Cell Signaling By The Receptor Sdia, Lorenzo Eugenio Leiva, Roberto A. Zúñiga, Gregory J. Phillips, Michael Ibba

Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Sciences Faculty Articles and Research

Several widespread mechanisms enable cellular communication and coordinate the behavior of bacterial populations. The modules responsible for cellular communication are often found in matching pairs: an enzyme that synthesizes a signal molecule and a specific receptor that decodes it. A notable exception is Escherichia coli SdiA, a homolog of known N-acyl-homoserine lactone (AHL) receptors, for which no corresponding AHL synthase exists. SdiA is an orphan receptor that enables cross-talk by sensing AHLs from other bacterial species. In this work, we investigated whether homocysteine thiolactone (HTL), an AHL-like molecule arising from a proofreading reaction of methionyl tRNA synthetase (MetRS) to correct …

Deconstructing Systemic Sclerosis Heterogeneity: From Patient Subtypes To Pathogenic Fibroblasts, Rezvan Parvizi

Dartmouth College Ph.D Dissertations

This thesis advances heterogeneity as the central barrier both to interpreting therapeutic response and to identifying the molecular regulators that drive fibrosis in systemic sclerosis (SSc). In SSc, heterogeneity is manifest at every level at which the disease can be measured: clinically, in the variable extent of skin and organ involvement; molecularly, in the distinct gene-expression programs that distinguish otherwise comparable patients; and cellularly, in the diverse fibroblast populations from which the fibrotic signal ultimately arises.

Leveraging longitudinal skin transcriptomics from a large cohort treated with mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), the first study demonstrates that intrinsic molecular subtypes are dynamic rather …

Mobile Genetic Elements Shape Microbial Diversity And Functions In Thawing Permafrost Soils, Jiarong Guo, Samuel T. N. Aroney, Guillermo Domínguez-Huerta, Derek Smith, Dean Vik, Carlos Owusu-Ansah, Akbar Adjie Pratama, Sergei Solonenko, Funing Tian, Cristina Howard-Varona, Zhi-Ping Zhong, Aminata Fofana, Garrett J. Smith, Suzanne B. Hodgkins, Dylan Cronin, Isogenie Field Teams 2010–2017, 2019, Emerge Coordinators, Ben J. Woodcroft, Gene W. Tyson, Virginia I. Rich, Matthew B. Sullivan, Simon Roux, Sarah C. Bagby, Michael Ibba

Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Sciences Faculty Articles and Research

Ecosystems are shaped by communities of microorganisms whose niches and impacts depend on functional profiles influenced by gene gains and losses. Culture-based experiments demonstrate that mobile genetic elements (MGEs) can mediate gene flux, but quantitative understanding of these dynamics in natural systems remains limited. Here we develop and apply a systematic, meta-omic framework to investigate MGEs in a complex natural system using an 8-year soil time series collected at Stordalen Mire, in Sweden’s thawing permafrost margin. In this climate-critical peatland, we identify ~2.1 million MGE recombinases across 89 microbial phyla and assess ecological distributions, affected functions, past mobility and current …

The Competition Between Splicing And 3′ Processing Shapes The Human Transcriptome, Lindsey V. Soles, Shuangyu Li, Liang Liu, Kristianna S.K. Sarkan, Erik G. Alvstad, Lusong Tian, Yoseop Yoon, Marielle Valdez, Ivan Marazzi, Yongsheng Shi

Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Sciences Faculty Articles and Research

Eukaryotic pre-mRNA processing steps, including splicing and 3′ processing, are tightly coordinated, yet the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood. U1 snRNP has been proposed to inhibit 3′ processing at intronic polyadenylation (IPA) sites through a splicing-independent mechanism termed telescripting. In contrast, we discovered that disrupting splicing by using six different methods—targeting various key components such as U1 snRNP, U2 snRNP, U2AF, and SF3b—activates 3′ processing at thousands of IPA sites. Notably, splicing inhibition, especially of U1 snRNP, induced widespread premature transcription termination within gene bodies through both IPA-coupled and IPA-independent mechanisms. Inhibition of different splicing factors activated overlapping and distinct …

Effects Of M6a Dna Methylation By Bacterial Methyltransferase In Colorectal Cancer, Fabian Alejandro Mendoza Galvan

Dissertations and Theses (Open Access)

Effects of m6A DNA methylation by bacterial methyltransferase in colorectal cancer Fabian Alejandro Mendoza Galvan Advisory Professor: Angela H. Ting, Ph.D. Fusobacterium nucleatum animalis (Fna) is found in the human oral cavity and gut. A distinct clade of Fna is primarily enriched in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and within colorectal cancer (CRC) cells. This clade DNA methylation pattern is primarily catalyzed by a cell-cycle regulated methyltransferase (CcrM) ortholog, M.FnI, that targets the GANTC sequence motif through methyl-6-Adenine (m6A) DNA methylation. We hypothesized that M.FnI enzyme can induce m6A methylation abnormalities in CRC cells to promote cancer progression. Evidence for endogenous …

Reverse Micelles Produce Hydroxyapatite Nanoparticles As More Efficient Gene Delivery Carriers Than Regular Micelles, Vuk Uskoković

Administration and Staff Articles and Research

Hydroxyapatite (HAp) is an effective inorganic gene delivery carrier due to its ability to transport genetic cargo across cell membranes, protect it from proteolysis, and enable escape from late endosomes via pH-controlled dissolution. However, its transfection efficiency remains lower than that of viral agents, prompting studies of hybrids with cationic molecules or phases to enhance the gene delivery performance. This study reports on the synthesis of HAp in regular and reverse micellar regions of a ternary microemulsion system composed of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), 1-hexanol and water. Spectroscopic characterization revealed that CTAB headgroups adopted more ordered supramolecular conformations in reverse micelles …

A Framework For Characterizing The Peripheral Immune Isonome Using Long-Read Single-Cell Rna Sequencing And Its Relevance To Neurological Disease, Patricia Hayes Doyle

Theses and Dissertations--Neuroscience

Long-read single-cell RNA sequencing provides an opportunity to understand human health and disease at isoform resolution, revealing cellular diversity and disease mechanisms difficult to resolve with bulk or short-read methodologies.

Using a modified PIPseq workflow and computational pipeline adapted for Oxford Nanopore (ONT) sequencing, we profiled isoform usage across immune cells, integrating marker expression and isoform discovery, generating the largest long-read single-cell dataset of human immune cells from a single individual to date. We identified non-canonical protein-coding variants of GZMB and CD3G enriched in unexpected cell types. We also discovered novel transcripts from CMC1 and LYAR with cell-type-specific signatures that …

Development Of Self-Assembled Polymeric Polyplexes For Microrna Delivery: Toward Treatment Of Alcohol-Associated Liver Disease, Marjina Akter Kalpana

Theses & Dissertations

Self-assembled polymeric polyplexes have the potential to serve as an RNA interference (RNAi) delivery platform for the combined inhibition of CXCR4 and miR-155 in the treatment of alcohol-associated liver disease (AALD). A central challenge in RNA delivery is balancing the extracellular stability of polyplexes, cellular uptake, and intracellular release of RNA cargo. We developed polymeric polyplexes using the CXCR4-antagonist polymer PAMD, designed to target CXCR4 on activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and deliver therapeutic miRNA to activated Kupffer cells (KCs) in fibrotic liver. We improved the polyplexes by cholesterol modification of PAMD and by PEGylation of PAMD-Ch. The cholesterol modification …

A Persistent Homology Framework For Scrna-Seq: Assessing Clustering Robustness And Quantifying Preprocessing And Integration Effects On Topological Features., Jonah Daneshmand

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

As single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data expands, robust methods for integrating diverse datasets are critical. This dissertation applies Persistent Homology (PH), a technique from Topological Data Analysis (TDA), to a collection of scRNA-seq datasets spanning eight tissue types to quantify how data integration affects topological features and biological interpretability. We assessed global topological structure using Betti curves, Euler characteristics, and persistence landscapes across raw, normalized, and integrated data representations. Our analysis revealed a performance inversion: while conventional methods excelled on unintegrated data, high-granularity topological methods, particularly those sensitive to global data structure, became superior after integration. This suggests a synergy …

Improved Model For Neurodegeneration In C. Elegans, Jean-Pierre Arditi

Graduate Theses and Dissertations (2019 - present)

During Alzheimer's disease (AD), insoluble amyloid beta (AP) peptides accumulate to form extracellular aggregates (plaques). The direct cause of neuronal dysfunction observed in AD has been broadly investigated. The amyloid hypothesis states that AP plaques are neurotoxic, but recent studies support the AP oligomer hypothesis, which states that intracellular AP (iAP) is neurotoxic. To test this hypothesis, I used CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing to generate two transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) strains. I generated a strain (RSLl 11) using the rab-3 promoter to co-express GFP in neurons, which showed no gross behavioral changes but had a 50% reduced egglaying rate. RSLl …

Immunological Surveillance Against Cancer Across Mammals, Orsolya Vincze, Piotr Minias, Alexandre Corthay, Fernando Colchero, Jean-François Lemaître, Louise Maille, Tamás Malkócs, Justus Hagemann, Dalia A. Conde, Samuel Pavard, Antoine M. Dujon, Beata Ujvari, Frédéric Thomas, Amy M. Boddy, Carlo C. Maley, Damien Chevallier, Tuul Sepp, Thomas Pradeu, Mathieu Giraudeau

Presidential Fellows Articles and Research

Contrary to expectations based on their higher cell numbers, larger and longer-lived species do not face dramatically increased risk of cancer. This strongly suggests that evolution has fashioned natural cancer resistance mechanisms, yet our knowledge remains limited on what these mechanisms might be. The cancer immunological surveillance hypothesis, proposed by Burnet and Thomas in the 1950s, highlights immunity as a key factor determining species-specific cancer resistance. Here we address the original, evolutionary interpretation of this hypothesis by investigating the relationship between cancer mortality risk and markers of efficient antigen presentation. Our results show that the expansion of the MHC class …

Genetic And Geographic Profiling Of Fragrance-Associated Badh2 Mutations In Rice From China, Laos, And Vietnam, Lenie A. Quiatchon-Baeza, Venea Dara Daygon, Mariafe N. Calingacion, Melissa A. Fitzgerald

The Philippine Agricultural Scientist

Fragrance in rice is a culturally and economically significant trait in Asia and around the world. This study aimed to develop a genetic and geographic profile of the fragrance-associated BADH2 mutations (badh2.1 and badh2.11) in 1,067 rice varieties from China, Laos, and Vietnam, which are part of the International Rice Genebank Collection. Seventy-three varieties were found to carry the common eight-base pair (bp) deletion in exon 7 of the genes (badh2.1, also known as badh2.7), primarily from indica varieties, with some belonging to japonica, javanica, and intermediate varieties. Conversely, 59 varieties possess the recently identified badh2 allele, badh2.11 (also known …

Enhancing Cataract Surgery Outcomes: Optimal Use Of Pre- And Post-Operative Eye Drops, Keith Skolnick M.D., Anu Valiaveedu

Mako: NSU Undergraduate Student Journal

Many preoperative and postoperative cataract patients struggle with comprehending the use of prescription medication as directed. Language barriers and low health literacy levels are major factors contributing to improper use of prescriptions. To increase patients comprehension, the Fort Lauderdale Eye Institute employed an educational intervention consisting of a live presentation and an instructional video. Results found that 44% of patients were hesitant to ask questions to clinical staff, 32% felt overwhelmed, and nearly 70% lacked confidence in using their prescribed eye drops. Following the intervention, 91% of patients reported increased confidence in their medications, and most indicated that the video …

Breeding Biofortified Protein Rich Organic Pulses For Better Human Health, Sonia Salaria

All Dissertations

Pulse crops are dry grains of legumes, the second most consumed plant crops in the world after cereals. These crops are one of the primary sources of plant-based protein and contain high concentrations of pre-biotic carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. Recognizing the health benefits of pulses intake, their demands as sustainable food and changes in people’s diet preferences for plant-based protein have increased awareness for pulses consumption. With this scenario, improving the nutritional profile of pulse crops for rich nutrition has been an opportunity for breeders to explore and tailor the available germplasm to develop nutrient dense pulses. Furthermore, the genomic …

Utilizing Pharmacogenomics To Improve Students' Self-Perception On The Interprofessional Competencies Of Roles And Responsibilities, And Teams And Teamwork, Amanda Brown, Moom R. Roosan, Robert Goldsteen, Scott D. Ochs, Reza Taheri

Pharmacy Faculty Articles and Research

Introduction

Pharmacogenomics (PGx) is an emerging discipline with the potential to revolutionize personalized medicine, but its successful implementation requires interprofessional collaboration. To address this need, a virtual interprofessional education (IPE) session was designed for student pharmacists and medical students to engage in a case-based learning experience.

Objective

The primary objective was to develop and implement an IPE activity focused on a patient case requiring PGx-guided dual antiplatelet therapy and to assess students' perceptions of two Interprofessional Education Collaborative (IPEC) Version 3 Core Competencies. A secondary objective was to identify key lessons from the session.

Methods

Pharmacist and physician faculty collaboratively …

Exploring Muslim American Attitudes Toward Genetic Testing: Perceptions, Barriers, And Ethical Considerations, Hannah Mahmoud

University Honors Theses

This thesis explores perceptions and attitudes toward genetic testing within the Muslim American community, a group often underrepresented in genomic research and public health discourse. Using a community-distributed digital survey, data was collected from 50 self-identified Muslim Americans on their familiarity with genetic testing, reproductive and ethical considerations, and the influence of religious factors. While only 18% had undergone genetic testing themselves, many were familiar through family or friends, and most expressed cautious interest—especially when results could influence future family planning. Education level, age, and religious values shaped both comfort and understanding.

A key theme was the desire for culturally …

Mesoderm-Specific Transcript Has A Role In The Systemic Regulation Of Obesity, Maria J. Orellana Rosales

Thinking Matters Symposium

Mesoderm specific transcript (Mest) expression in white adipose tissue (WAT) is variable in genetically identical mice. Previous studies have shown a connection between Mest high expression and propensity for fat mass expansion. WAT and liver crosstalk has been well documented with hormone-like peptides signaling and regulating important metabolic pathways. The aim of this study is to investigate the correlation between these circulating factors and Mest expression in mice after exposure to a high fat diet (HFD). A group of 120 C57B6/J mice, males and females, were exposed to a HFD (Western Diet, 40 kcal% fat) for 4 weeks (8-12 weeks …

Genomic Structure Among Populations Of A Regionally Rare Perennial Plant Indicates The Need For Reevaluation Of Management Units, Cheyenne Moore, Angela J. Mcdonnell, Scott Schuette, Christopher T. Martine

Faculty Journal Articles

Conservation of rare species often relies on the delineation of management units and genomic tools can now be applied for this purpose. However, this is not as common on a local scale, where populations are often small and fragmented, despite the utility of informing conservation and management practice at the regional level. We use a genotyping by sequencing (GBS) approach to assess the perennial riparian plant species Baptisia australis (Fabaceae) in Pennsylvania, where the taxon is at the edge of its natural distribution and considered threatened. In this system, we investigate whether sampled subpopulations exhibit genetic structure. We find that …

Investigating The Effects Of Sod1 Knockout On Oxidative Stress And Stress Coping Styles In Zebrafish Using Crispr Technology, Tai Prauner, Ryan Wong

Theses/Capstones/Creative Projects

Reactive oxygen species are byproducts of cellular metabolism that, when not efficiently neutralized, can damage DNA, proteins, and lipids. Superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) is an antioxidant enzyme that converts superoxide radicals into less harmful molecules. While its molecular function is well documented, the role of SOD1 in shaping stress-related behavior remains underexplored. This project aimed to establish foundational tools for studying the behavioral impact of SOD1 knockout across proactive and reactive stress-coping styles in zebrafish.

To support future gene-editing experiments, microinjection and breeding protocols were refined across wildtype AB, proactive, and reactive zebrafish lines. No embryos were injected with CRISPR-Cas9 …

Elucidating The Multi-Omics Of Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer, Jumanah Alshenaifi

Dissertations and Theses (Open Access)

The incidence and mortality rates of sporadic early-onset colorectal cancer have increased in recent decades, but there is no clear etiological basis for this trend. EOCRC is commonly defined as colon and rectal cancers diagnosed before the age of 50 years. The rising incidence of EOCRC has made it the second most common cancer and the third leading cause of cancer death in this age group. The rising incidence of EOCRC is also documented internationally in more than 20 countries across different continents. Clinically, EOCRC has a distinct, more aggressive clinical profile than LOCRC. While approximately 15% of EOCRC cases …

The Influence Of Scientific, Genetic, And Health Literacy On Carrier Screening Decision-Making, Brenna D. Albracht

Dissertations and Theses (Open Access)

For those wishing to assess their reproductive risks and make informed decisions in their reproductive planning, carrier screening for autosomal recessive and X-linked conditions, as well as cell-free DNA (cfDNA) screening for aneuploidy, are recommended during pregnancy. Despite similarities in purpose, sample requirements, insurance coverage, and safety, a lower percentage of individuals elect carrier screening than cfDNA screening, suggesting there may be a disconnect in what patients perceive as valuable information for their pregnancy. Previous studies have attempted to explain the factors associated with carrier screening uptake or decline; however, no models have yet accounted for a patient’s literacy level …

The Role And Expression Of Pros-1 In The C. Elegans Gonad, Brandon W. Thomas, Mary B. Kroetz, Roberta Challener

Undergraduate Theses

The nematode, formally known as Caenorhabditis elegans, has served as an excellent model organism in understanding fundamental biological processes, including those governed by conserved genes like pros-1. pros-1 is partially responsible for the formation of tubular structures within the organism. Glial cells and excretory canals are both examples of tubular structures governed by pros-1. pros-1 orchestrates the embryonic development of these cell types by modulating cell proliferation and differentiation, thus ensuring proper morphogenesis and organogenesis. Its regulatory influence likely extends beyond embryogenesis, potentially affecting reproductive processes as well. Furthermore, the evolutionary conservation of pros-1 underscores its significance …

Highly Targeted Metabolomics Coupled With Gene Expression Analysis By Rt–Qpcr Improves Beef Separation Based On Grass, Grain, Or Grape Supplemented Diet, Lucas Krusinski, Chloe Castanon, Rosalee S. Hellberg, Isabella C. F. Maciel, Muhammad Ahsin, Stephan Van Vliet, Jason E. Rowntree, Jennifer I. Fenton

Food Science Faculty Articles and Research

The objective of this study was to use a multi-omics (i.e., gene expression quantification, metabolomics, and fatty acid [FA] profiling) approach to separate and authenticate beef from three different dietary groups. In this 2-year study, Red Angus steers (n = 54) were randomly allocated to one of three treatments: (1) complex biodiverse pasture (GRASS), (2) total mixed ration (TMR) in feedlot (GRAIN), or (3) TMR in feedlot supplemented with 5% (dry matter) grapeseed extract for the last 30 days (GRAPE). FAs were measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS), secondary metabolites were identified using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry …

The Impact Of Paternal Obesity On Placental Development And Function During Pregnancy, Delaney G. Wolfe, Delaney G. Wiolfe

Department of Nutrition Student Projects

Paternal obesity is a rising concern in conception and reproductive health, with increasing evidence suggesting its impact on pregnancy outcomes. While maternal obesity's effects on fetal development and placental function are well-documented, the role of paternal obesity remains less understood. The placenta, crucial for nutrient exchange and fetal development, can be disrupted by inflammation, oxidative stress, and epigenetic modifications, potentially leading to long-term health implications for both maternal and fetal health. Understanding the paternal influence on placental development is essential for improving pregnancy outcomes and offspring
health. This study aims to investigate the relationship between paternal obesity on placental function …

Precision Metagenomics In Elder Care: Renovating Infection Diagnostics And Antimicrobial Stewardship, Rob E. Carpenter

Human Resource Development Faculty Publications and Presentations

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) remains a critical challenge in elder care, where frequent infections, polypharmacy, and immunosenescence contribute to poor outcomes. Traditional diagnostic methods, including culture-based and polymerase chain reaction assays, often fail to provide timely, comprehensive microbial identification, leading to prolonged empirical antibiotic use and worsening resistance trends. Precision metagenomics, a clinically refined application of next-generation sequencing, represents a transformative advancement in infection diagnostics and antimicrobial stewardship. By enabling culture-independent, high-resolution pathogen detection directly from clinical samples, precision metagenomics provides real-time identification of bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic pathogens, along with their antimicrobial resistance profiles. This approach facilitates early intervention, …

The Role Of Secondary And Tertiary Structure In The Cap-Independent Translation Of Fgf-9 And Hif-1-Alpha, Amanda Michelle Whittaker

Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects

Under normoxic conditions, eukaryotes initiate translation of RNA through eIF4E recognition of the 5’ cap. However, under cellular stress, eukaryotic translation must be initiated through a 4E-independent, or “cap-independent” mechanism, involving eukaryotic initiation factor 4G (eIF4G) binding directly to the 5’ untranslated regions (5’ UTR) of the RNA. eIF4G binding then recruits the ribosome to the transcript. While this mechanism is useful for translation of apoptotic transcripts and transcripts involved in cell survival, cap-independent translation is also utilized by oncogenic RNA for tumorigenesis. Previous work by our lab and others has categorized this recruitment and initiation mechanism as either internal-ribosome-entry-site …

Investigating The Dna-Binding Role Of Tbp1 In Toxoplasma Gondii: Expression And Characterization Of A Recombinant Protein, Madison T. Jeckell

Honors Theses and Capstones

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite with a complex life cycle and an unusual transcriptional machinery compared to other eukaryotes. Unlike most organisms, Toxoplasma lacks multiple well-conserved promoter motifs and has multiple TATA-binding proteins (TBPs), including TBP1, whose function in DNA binding and transcription regulation is poorly understood. This study aimed to generate and express a recombinant TBP1 protein from Toxoplasma to enable future DNA-binding assays and motif identification. Using RT-PCR, the TgTBP1 gene was amplified and cloned into a pGEX vector to produce a GST-tagged protein. The recombinant plasmid was transformed into E. coli BL21 cells, and protein …

The Role Of Horizontal Gene Transfer In Antibiotic Resistance Amidst Prevalent Community And Healthcare-Associated Mrsa Rates, Gabrielle Nascimento

Honors College Theses

In recent decades, cases of community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) and healthcare-associated MRSA (HA-MRSA) have been on the rise. The ability of antibiotic resistance to transfer between microorganisms greatly expands its threat to the effective treatment and containment of bacterial infections. The mecA gene is found on a mobile cassette within the Staphylococcal cell and encodes for PBP2a, an alternate version of penicillin-binding protein (PBP) with less binding affinity for β-lactam antibiotics, increasing resistance to the effects of antibiotics. The goal of this research is to investigate the horizontal transfer of the mecA gene between various Staphylococcus species as well as to …

Genetic Property Rhetoric And The Public Domain, David Fagundes

Faculty Articles

Among the many themes that illuminate Jorge Contreras’s The Genome Defense, this Essay focuses on property. It considers the rhetorical role played by property in convincing both courts and the public that patenting genetic data was legally and ethically objectionable. This Essay begins by locating property—and public property—as a major theme in the dialogue surrounding the Myriad litigation. It then situates this rhetorical move in the context of property-talk generally, highlighting the distinctiveness of leveraging public rather than private ownership as a means of accessing moral intuitions. Finally, this Essay reflects on what the use of public property rhetoric …

Karyotyping As A Method To Verify Phylogenetic Relationships Among The Enneacanthus Species, Ophelia A. Anderson

Theses and Dissertations

The Enneacanthus genus consists of three species of freshwater fish endemic to eastern North America: E. obesus (Banded Sunfish), E. gloriosus (Blue Spotted Sunfish), and E. chaetodon (Black Banded Sunfish). Previous studies using molecular data suggest that E. obesus and E. gloriosus are more closely related, with E. chaetodon as the most distantly related species in the genus. This study investigates the phylogenetic relationship among the Enneacanthus species, using karyotype characteristics - chromosome number, morphology and fundamental number - as comparative metrics. Chromosome spreads were obtained from scale and gill epithelium samples collected between 1993 and 1994. Prepared slides …