Engineering Commons^™

Unlv Title Iii Aanapisi & Mcnair Scholars Institute Research Journal 2024, Jesica Godinez-Paredes, Kian Hassankhan, Apia Hickman, Robin Ruth Kee, Kevin Ayala Pineda, Briana Melendez, Kalli Ramos, Saturn L. Reyes, Fabian Leija, Selena Pepe, Silva Topchyan, Celeste Ainsley, Mayra Arzate, Jessica Balistreri, Zantana Ephrem, Mirella Jasso, Karl Panou, Nichole Pelaez, Miklo Alcala, Akshay Dave, Mey Mey Heng, Michael Finkle, Janessa Montenegro, Reynafe Naol Aniga, Victor Mejia, Angelica G. Diaz, Anayeli Flores-Garibay, Kari Lee Joe Goold, Samantha Hernandez, Lianelys Cabrera Martinez, Caitlin Reynolds, Kimberly N. Usbeck, Abdulrahman Alahdal, Angelica Diaz, Willaine Mae Kahano, Raquel Jackson, Cecia Ruiz-Hernandez, Kers Ung-Watson, Yessenia Henriquez, Vanessa Marie Booth, Alexia Brown, Darlyn Magana, Bianca Navarro, Nicholas Pereira, Gia Renemae Calip, Lucky Heng, Ralph Sagun, Lucas Abreu, Alexandra Maria Acosta, Tristan Benally, Cosset Hernandez Pena, Adrian Montenegro, Cierra Paaaina-Daquioag, Nicole Torosian, Tracy Fuentes, Julissa Martinez, Medina Mcallister, Michal Newhouse-Van Vlerin, Tiria Carr, Nima Abkenar, Isabella Aceituno, Yuhan Bi, Victoria Campos, Melika Cummings, Zachary J. Johnigan, Alexis Sotolongo-Marin

McNair Journal

Journal articles based on research conducted by undergraduate students in the AANAPISI, LSAMP, and McNair Scholars Program.

Table of Contents

About AANAPISI

Dr. Chris Heavey, Interim President

Dr. Keith Rogers, Vice President for Student Affairs

Ms. Zhanna Aronov, Associate Vice President for Retention & Outreach

An Integrated Framework For Establishing Long-Term Transportation Management Strategies Promoting Sustainable Urban Growth, M Imtiaz Rahman

Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports (ETD)

Urban land areas are experiencing a more rapid expansion compared to their population growth on a global scale. This phenomenon, known as urban sprawl, is characterized by low-density development in the outskirts of cities. This unplanned urban growth leads to changing urban transportation patterns, posing a threat to sustainable development. In response, government agencies implement growth management practices, with transportation management strategies playing a crucial role in achieving sustainable urban growth. However, developing effective growth management strategies is difficult because of several challenges, including limited understanding of the key influencing factors, the complex interdependencies among these factors, and the uncertainties …

Experimental Evaluation Of Thermal Adaptation And Transient Thermal Comfort In A Tropical Mixed-Mode Ventilation Context, Yue Lei, Duygu Zeynep Tekler, Sicheng Zhan, Clayton Miller, Adrian Chong

Research Collection College of Integrative Studies

Mixed-mode ventilation offers a promising solution for achieving comfortable indoor environments in an energy-efficient manner. However, in the tropics, characterized by a year-round hot and humid climate, opportunities for natural ventilation (NV) are typically limited to specific hours, necessitating operational mode switches on an intraday basis. Much of the thermal comfort research on mixed-mode ventilation relies either on cross-sectional data collected from different subjects or longitudinal data spanning a few seasons. This raises an open question: Can occupants thermally adapt when switching between NV and air-conditioning (AC) modes within a single day? To address the gap, our experimental study engaged …

An Overview Of The Relationships Between The Food Industry And Nanotechnology, Mehdi Koushki, Nasrin Amiri-Dashatan, Hossein Pourghadamyari, Hadi Khodabandehloo, Fatemeh Bagheri, Masoumeh Farahani, Lobat Tayebi

Electrical & Computer Engineering Faculty Publications

Background and Objective: Due to the growth of the global population, food demands are increasing. Hence, the need to develop more efficient methods for producing better quality, safer, and more sustainable food seems essential. In the past decades, the use of nanoscale materials has increased greatly due to the unique chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of nanomaterials compared to bulk materials. This research presents nanotechnology role in improving sensorial properties (taste, appearance, and texture) and safety aspects as well as processing and packaging of foods. The use of nano-omics-based technologies and artificial intelligence-nanotechnology-based technologies in the food industry is also …

Filling Time-Series Gaps Using Image Techniques: Multidimensional Context Autoencoder Approach For Building Energy Data Imputation, Chun Fu, Matias Quintana, Zoltan Nagy, Clayton Miller

Research Collection College of Integrative Studies

Building energy prediction and management has become increasingly important in recent decades, driven by the growth of Internet of Things (IoT) devices and the availability of more energy data. However, energy data is often collected from multiple sources and can be incomplete or inconsistent, which can hinder accurate predictions and management of energy systems and limit the usefulness of the data for decision-making and research. To address this issue, past studies have focused on imputing missing gaps in energy data, including random and continuous gaps. One of the main challenges in this area is the lack of validation on a …

Compound Flooding Hazards Due To Storm Surge And Pluvial Flow In A Low-Gradient Coastal Region, Sunghoon Han, Navid Tahvildari

Civil & Environmental Engineering Faculty Publications

Flood risk analyses often focus on a single flooding source, typically storm surge or rainfall-driven flooding, depending on the predominant threat. However, hurricanes frequently cause compound flooding through significant storm surges accompanied by heavy rainfall. This study employs a hydrodynamic model based on Delft3D-Flexible Mesh that couples flow, waves, and rainfall-driven flow to simulate five historical tropical cyclones in Virginia's southeast coastal region. These storms produced varying intensities of storm surge and rainfall in the study area. Model simulations, incorporating rainfall through a rain-on-grid approach, account for the dynamic interaction between storm tides, and pluvial flow and enable the definition …

What Can We Learn From A Co-Creation Journey For A Quick Scan Digital Transformation Maturity Assessment Tool For Development Ngos?, Anand Sheombar

Journal of International Technology and Information Management

This paper describes the approach and lessons learned from a co-creation process with Dutch development NGOs to create a practical and easy-to-use assessment tool for practitioners to assess the organisation's maturity level of digital transformation. For this study, we applied a design science research methodology, specifically a six-step co-creation approach suitable for developing maturity models. The digital maturity assessment tool (quick scan) created is a domain- specific digital transformation maturity tool for development NGOs rather than a generally applicable tool. This artefact was evaluated using an eight-point Requirements framework for the development of digital maturity assessment tools. By developing a …

World Spirit And The Apotheosis Of Artificial Superintelligence: A Speculative Design Proposal, Ian Gonsher

Scholarly Research

This essay puts forth a speculative design proposal for a device with affordances for talking to, and receiving responses from, God. We begin with an analysis and critique of the concept of God, framing this concept within an understanding of Hegelian Spirit (Geist) and technological evolution. In this context, Spirit, or World Spirit (Weltgeist), can be characterized as the aggregate consciousness of all people - as human consciousness itself: In the simplest terms, this immanent framing of the “mind of God” is culturally and socially constituted as the communication that people engage in with each other, in all the diverse …

Ethical Decision-Making In Older Drivers During Critical Driving Situations: An Online Experiment, Amandeep Singh, Sarah Yahoodik, Yovela Murzello, Samuel Petkac, Yusuke Yamani, Siby Samuel

Psychology Faculty Publications

The present study examined the impact of aging on ethical decision-making in simulated critical driving scenarios. 204 participants from North America, grouped into two age groups (18–30 years and 65 years and above), were asked to decide whether their simulated automated vehicle should stay in or change from the current lane in scenarios mimicking the Trolley Problem. Each participant viewed a video clip rendered by the driving simulator at Old Dominion University and pressed the space-bar if they decided to intervene in the control of the simulated automated vehicle in an online experiment. Bayesian hierarchical models were used to analyze …

Energy And Empowerment In The High Arctic, Alyssa Pantaleo

Dartmouth College Ph.D Dissertations

National governments continue to depend on fossil fuels for electricity and heat generation in Arctic communities. This dependence threatens the economic, environmental, and cultural sustainability of Arctic communities and subjects them to future volatility and uncertainty. In Greenland, the centralized government structure creates additional challenges for northern communities by limiting the inclusion of local knowledge and priorities in favor of national, standardized solutions. This research identifies pathways towards fossil fuel reduction in northern Greenlandic communities via 1.) analyzing the potential for renewable energy inclusion in grid-scale or residential energy generation and 2.) analysis of the potential for energy reduction in …

Exposure To Low (10 Cgy) Doses Of ⁴He Ions Leads To An Apparent Increase In Risk Taking Propensity In Female Rats, Nina Li, Simran Phuyal, Elliot Smits, Faith E. Reid, Ella N. Tamgue, Paola Alvarado Arriaga, Richard A. Britten

Department of Medicine Faculty Publications

The planned missions to the Moon and Mars will present more significant health challenges to astronauts compared to low earth orbit missions. During deep space missions, astronauts will be constantly exposed to Space radiation (SR). Multiple rodent studies suggest that < 25 cGy of SR impairs performance in executive functions, which play a key role in advanced cognitive processes, but also regulate response inhibition and impulse control. There is the possibility that SR exposure may exacerbate aberrant behaviors evoked by psychological stress related to exposure to isolated and confined (ICE) hostile environment or independently induce additional aberrant behaviors. This study has determined that female Wistar rats exposed to 10 cGy of 250 MeV/n He had an increased risk taking propensity (RTP)\compared to shams. The increased RTP of the He-exposed rats was associated with significantly increased reaction times during the trials, suggesting a SR-induced loss of processing speed. The response times of the He-exposed rats were even further reduced in trials that immediately followed a loss, raising the possibility that conflict and interference avoidance may be impaired after SR exposure. Whether these findings occur following other types of SR exposure, and/or in male rats remains to be determined.

Toward Inclusivity: Rethinking Islamophobic Content Classification In The Digital Age, Esraa Aldreabi, Mukul Dev Chhangani, Khawlah M. Harahsheh, Justin M. Lee, Chung-Hao Chen

Electrical & Computer Engineering Faculty Publications

In this paper, we implement a comprehensive three-class system to categorize social media discussions about Islam and Muslims, enhancing the typical binary approach. These classes are: I) General Discourse About Islam and Muslims, II) Criticism of Islamic Teachings and Figures, and III) Comments Against Muslims. These categories are designed to balance the nuances of free speech while protecting diverse groups like Muslims, ex-Muslims, LGBTQ+ communities, and atheists. By utilizing machine learning and employing transformer-based models, we analyze the distribution and characteristics of these classes in social media content. Our findings reveal distinct patterns of user engagement with topics related to …

A Review Of Emerging Sensor Technologies For Tank Inspection: A Focus On Lidar And Hyperspectral Imaging And Their Automation And Deployment, Sergio Pallas Enguita, Chung-Hao Chen, Samuel Kovacic

Electrical & Computer Engineering Faculty Publications

This paper reviews various sensor technologies for tank inspection, focusing on Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) and Hyperspectral Imaging (HSI) as advanced solutions for corrosion detection. These technologies are evaluated alongside traditional methods such as ultrasonic, electromagnetic, and thermographic inspections. This review highlights their potential to enhance inspection accuracy, reduce the limitations of manual inspection, and support integrated data analysis for comprehensive asset management. Additionally, this paper proposes a pathway for automating these techniques to streamline inspection processes and improve implementation in practical applications.

Ai And Ml-Based Risk Assessment Of Chemicals: Predicting Carcinogenic Risk From Chemical-Induced Genomic Instability, Ajay Vikram Singh, Preeti Bhardwaj, Peter Laux, Prachi Pradeep, Madleen Busse, Andreas Luch, Akihiko Hirose, Christopher J. Osgood, Michael W. Stacey

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

Chemical risk assessment plays a pivotal role in safeguarding public health and environmental safety by evaluating the potential hazards and risks associated with chemical exposures. In recent years, the convergence of artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), and omics technologies has revolutionized the field of chemical risk assessment, offering new insights into toxicity mechanisms, predictive modeling, and risk management strategies. This perspective review explores the synergistic potential of AI/ML and omics in deciphering clastogen-induced genomic instability for carcinogenic risk prediction. We provide an overview of key findings, challenges, and opportunities in integrating AI/ML and omics technologies for chemical risk assessment, …

Improving Risk Governance Strategies Via Learning: A Comparative Analysis Of Solar Radiation Modification And Gene Drives, Khara Grieger, Jonathan B. Wiener, Jennifer Kuzma

Faculty Scholarship

Stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI) and gene drive organisms (GDOs) have been proposed as technological responses to complex entrenched environmental challenges. They also share several characteristics of emerging risks, including extensive uncertainties, systemic interdependencies, and risk profiles intertwined with societal contexts. This Perspective conducts a comparative analysis of the two technologies, and identifies ways in which their research and policy communities may learn from each other to inform future risk governance strategies. We find that SAI and GDOs share common features of aiming to improve or restore a public good, are characterized by numerous potential ecological, societal, and ethical risks associated …

Autonomous Strike Uavs For Counterterrorism Missions: Challenges And Preliminary Solutions, Meshari Aljohani, Ravi Mukkamala, Stephan Olariu

Computer Science Faculty Publications

UAVs are becoming a crucial tool in modern warfare, primarily due to their cost-effectiveness, risk reduction, and ability to perform a wider range of activities. The use of autonomous UAVs to conduct strike missions against highly valuable targets is the focus of this research. Due to developments in ledger technology, smart contracts, and machine learning, such activities formerly carried out by professionals or remotely flown UAVs are now feasible. Our study provides the first in-depth analysis of challenges and potential solutions for successful implementation of an autonomous UAV mission.

Autonomous Strike Uavs In Support Of Homeland Security Missions: Challenges And Preliminary Solutions, Meshari Aljohani, Ravi Mukkamala, Stephan Olariu

Computer Science Faculty Publications

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are becoming crucial tools in modern homeland security applications, primarily because of their cost-effectiveness, risk reduction, and ability to perform a wider range of activities. This study focuses on the use of autonomous UAVs to conduct, as part of homeland security applications, strike missions against high-value terrorist targets. Owing to developments in ledger technology, smart contracts, and machine learning, activities formerly carried out by professionals or remotely flown UAVs are now feasible. Our study provides the first in-depth analysis of the challenges and preliminary solutions for the successful implementation of an autonomous UAV mission. Specifically, we …

A Practical Framework For Component-Level Structural Health Monitoring Of The Gerald Desmond Bridge, Mehran Rahmani, Vesna Terzic, Andrea Calabrese, Brittany Cambell

Mineta Transportation Institute

Bridges serve as critical transportation infrastructure, but traditional maintenance inspection to ensure their safety is time-consuming, costly, and labor-intensive, especially for larger and more complex structures. This study presents a practical framework for the instrumentation, data acquisition, and remote condition assessment of the Gerald Desmond Bridge, California’s largest cable-stayed bridge. The framework aims to establish a foundation for real-time or near real-time remote health monitoring of the bridge’s critical elements. The study highlights the advantages of remote monitoring in terms of efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and early detection of damage.

Cooperative Trucks And Drones For Rural Last-Mile Delivery With Steep Roads, Jiuhong Xiao, Ying Li, Zhiguang Cao, Jianhua Xiao

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

The cooperative delivery of trucks and drones promises considerable advantages in delivery efficiency and environmental friendliness over pure fossil fuel fleets. As the prosperity of rural B2C e-commerce grows, this study intends to explore the prospect of this cooperation mode for rural last-mile delivery by developing a green vehicle routing problem with drones that considers the presence of steep roads (GVRPD-SR). Realistic energy consumption calculations for trucks and drones that both consider the impacts of general factors and steep roads are incorporated into the GVRPD-SR model, and the objective is to minimize the total energy consumption. To solve the proposed …

Metal Contamination In Household Dust And Their Health Risk Assessment: A Study In Two Malaysian Cities, Xin Yi Lim, Ting Fang Lye, Joo Hui Tay

Applied Environmental Research

Investigating the composition of household dust can provide crucial insights into potential environmental and health implications. This study aimed to determine the concentration of selected metals in 30 household floor dust samples collected from two cities in Peninsular Malaysia, namely Melaka and Butterworth. The samples were collected using nylon socks attached to a vacuum cleaner nozzle during January-February 2021. All samples were sieved through a 200-µm sieve, acid-digested with aqua regia, and analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Mean metal concentrations decreased in the order of Fe>Al>Mg>Zn>Mn>Ba>Cu>Cr>Pb. Cd was not …

Exposure To Metal Accumulation In Chicken Giblets And Human Health Risk In Lokoja, Nigeria, Jude Ehwevwerhere Emurotu, Lami Habib, Ephraim Musa Dallatu, Adamu Shuaibu Onakpa, Aloysius Akaangee Pam

Applied Environmental Research

When consumed, the toxic heavy metals in chicken giblets pose a grave risk to humans. An inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES) was used to measure the concentrations of metals (Al, Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, Mn, and Pb) in the liver, gizzard, and kidney of chickens from the Lokoja poultry market. Except for lead, which slightly exceeded the FAO/WHO limit of 0.1 mg kg-1, the metal concentrations found were all within the threshold limit. The estimated daily intake (EDI), hazard quotient (HQ), hazard index (HI), and cancer risk (CR) were used to assess the risks that humans would face …

Unveiling Long-Term Impacts Of Forest Cover Changes And Carbon Storage Assessment In Nan Province, Thailand, Jiratiwan Kruasilp, Sura Pattanakiat, Siam Lawawirojwong, Thamarat Phutthai, Poonperm Vardhanabindu, Warinthorn Kiadtikornthaweeyot Evans, Anne Jacquine

Applied Environmental Research

Forests serve as carbon sink by storing and sequestrating carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Forest cover loss adversely affects communities by increasing risks to the shortage of carbon storage. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of forest fragmentation and assessment of forest cover changes impacts on carbon storage over Nan province during 1990 to 2019. Spatial and temporal patterns were explored using landscape metrics analysis. Forest areas declined 10.69% over 30 years using random forest classifier based on Google Earth Engine platform, with an overall accuracy of 97.10%. The highest rate of forest cover changes was 5.27% (2010 to 2014), …

Geospatial Modelling Of Flood Susceptibility Of The Calabar City, Cross River State, Nigeria, Joel Efiong, Eme Efiong, Oluyemi Akintoye, Ebin Inah, Obianuju Awan, Francis Ogban

Applied Environmental Research

Flooding remains a major environmental problem in many parts of the world including Nigeria, causing untold losses. This study modelled the flood susceptibility of Calabar Metropolis using frequency ratio and geographical information system (GIS). Direct field observation and key informant approaches were used to obtain 127 previous and current flood locations in the study area from which a database of historical flood occurrence was developed. Using the geostatistical analyst tool within a geographical information environment the flood locations were split into two parts in the ratio of 70:30 percent for the training and testing processes, respectively. Eight flood conditioning factors …

Minimization The Chemical Oxygen Demand (Cod) Content In Tannery Wastewater Using Activated Carbon From Spent Tea Leaves, Kanish Fatama, Nasifa Akter, Badhan Saha, Nur -E- Alam Md., Shimul Chakma

Applied Environmental Research

Water pollution from tannery wastewater is a serious environmental issue. This study aimed to investigate the potential of spent tea leaves as activated carbon (AC) to minimize chemical oxygen demand (COD) of tannery effluent. To determine the best conditions for minimizing COD, a batch adsorption process was conducted, involving various factors such as different adsorbent dosages (ranging from 1 to 11 gm L-1), contact time (30 to150 min), and pH values (ranging from 3 to 11). The characterization was done by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscope (SEM). The outcomes of this study demonstrated that using 1.5 M …

Adsorption Behavior And Mechanism Of Brilliant Green Dye Onto Acid-Modified Mesoporous Volcanic Pumice, Suchada Sawasdee, Prachart Watcharabundit

Applied Environmental Research

Water pollution is a major problem in the environment. The important one is the dying effluent from the textile industry. Dye effluent has affected human health and aquatic life. Recently, natural adsorbents have been most commonly used for dye treatment wastewater. This study explores the adsorption mechanism of brilliant green onto HCl-modified pumice. It involves a comparative analysis of the raw and HCl-modified pumice's characterization and adsorption properties. The adsorption experiments were carried out by considering several parameters, such as pH, contact time, initial dye concentrations, and temperatures. The research indicated that the raw and acid-treated pumice possess Si-OH and …

Outlooks And Challenges For Urban Green Space Development: A Review Case Study In Thailand, Kanawat Paoin, Chanathip Pharino

Applied Environmental Research

Even though prior studies have provided ample proof of the benefits of urban green space, Thailand's development and exploitation of urban green space remain insufficiently efficient. To assess the prospects for urban green space development in Thailand, our review study highlighted gaps and challenges related to these areas. This review study discussed the rationale for urban green space, its definitions, as well as its benefits and co-benefits (i.e., economic, social, health, and environmental). The review research additionally discussed Thailand's current urban green space issues, associated challenges (such as difficulties valuing and using urban green space, budgetary limitations, low priority for …

Path Analysis Of The Relationship Between Diarrhea, Climate And Environmental Variables In Province Of West Nusa Tenggara-Indonesia, Khadijah Azhar, Ika Dharmayanti, Dwi Hapsari Tjandrarini, Bambang Wispriyono

Applied Environmental Research

Diarrhea is a major cause of morbidity and mortality, particularly in West Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia, due to certain factors. Therefore, this study aims to examine the influence of climate, economic status, demographic, water, sanitation, and hygiene factors on diarrhea. The study procedures were carried out using an ecological design that focused on the characteristics of the sample population. The unit of analysis was districts/cities, where data on diarrhea cases from 2017–2020 were used, along with other variables in the same period. The dependent variable was the number of diarrhea cases per month, while the independent variables included average temperature, …

Enzyme Activity And Biodegradation Potentials Of Serratia Marcescens Cell-Free Extract On Polyethylene Terephthalate Sheet, Ogunjemite Oluwadamilola E, Folasade M. Olajuyigbe

Applied Environmental Research

Microbial strains with potential hydrolytic enzymes are excellent hosts for the biodegradation of polyethylene terephthalate (PET). However, knowledge of the best working conditions for enzymatic actions is essential to suggest the most suitable condition for the bio-transformation process. In this research, PETase and lipase produced by Serratia marcescens under PET exposure were screened and their physicochemical properties were evaluated. Furthermore, the biodegradation efficiency of the cell-free extract produced from S. marcescens on a PET sheet was studied via scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR). The result showed maximum production of PETase activity (8.80 U mL-1) and …

Effective Microorganisms (Em) As Bioremediation Agent Of Profenofos Pesticide Residue In Vegetable Farm Soil From Benguet Province, Philippines, Maylowen P. Lumayna, Paulina A. Bawingan

Applied Environmental Research

Effective microorganisms (EM) have shown remarkable adaptability and have been used in agriculture and environmental management. This study intended to provide insights into the effectiveness of EM technology in rehabilitating soils contaminated with pesticides. Specifically, the study aimed to determine the efficiency of EM in breaking down the profenofos component of Selecron® 500 EC pesticide in a controlled condition. Results show that the initial profenofos (17.2 mg kg-1) degraded in the control and experimental groups by 94.19% and 96.45%, respectively, over a 21-day laboratory experiment. EM-treated soil samples showed a significant difference from untreated samples, as revealed in the Kruskal-Wallis …

Microplastic Contamination In Table Salt: A Study Of Consumer Behavior In Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh, Sk Abid Md Saad, Faijunnesa Rashid, Maisha Miskat, Mukul Chandra Sarker, Arman Khan, Mustafizur Rahman

Applied Environmental Research

Plastic particles resulting from the breakdown of bigger plastics may be introduced directly as micro- and nano-sized particles polluting the marine ecosystem, including ocean-extracted table salt. This study investigated the presence of microplastic (MP)-like particles in table salt from Bangladesh, focusing on both locally refined and commercially branded varieties. Local salt samples from Sadar and Moheshkhali Sub-district of Cox’s Bazar contained an average of 23.4 and 12 particles kg-1, respectively. In contrast, no particles were detected in commercial brands, likely due to their complex refining processes. The study also explored factors influencing local salt consumption, finding it influenced by the …