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Articles 241 - 270 of 474

Full-Text Articles in Microbiology

Sequencing The Mammoth Cytochrome B Gene: A Genetic Look Into The History Of Prehistoric Columbian Mammoths, Shaun Odell, Dr. Scott Woodward Oct 2013

Sequencing The Mammoth Cytochrome B Gene: A Genetic Look Into The History Of Prehistoric Columbian Mammoths, Shaun Odell, Dr. Scott Woodward

Journal of Undergraduate Research

During the excavation process associated with the reconstruction of Cleveland reservoir dam near the Huntington Canyon area of UT, the massive skeleton of a Columbian mammoth was unearthed. Excavation of the remains ensued, and bone samples from this prehistoric mammal were sent to the Molecular Archaeogenetic Research facility at Brigham Young University. These samples were studied in hopes of unlocking many of the mysteries associated with this ancient animal.

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Chemical Disinfection Of Mycobacterium Ulcerous, Brandon John Webb, Dr. Richard Robison Oct 2013

Chemical Disinfection Of Mycobacterium Ulcerous, Brandon John Webb, Dr. Richard Robison

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Mycobacterium ulcerans is the causative agent of Buruli ulcer, a disfiguring disease of the skin and muscle tissue, whose prevalence has grown exponentially in recent decades. An ulcerative disease similar to leprosy, Buruli ulcer is characterized by a superficial infection of the subcutaneous fat layer that results in large lesions that often spread to cover an entire limb. Although most severe in Third World countries, cases of M. ulcerans infection have been reported in 33 countries on five continents. According to World Health Organization statistics, the recent rise in incidence of the disease has been so pronounced that Buruli ulcer …

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Chondrogenic Differentiation Of Adult Hepatic Stem Cells: Investigating Candidates For Osteoarthritis Treatment, Jaron Coombs, David Sonntag, Dr. Laura Bridgewater Oct 2013

Chondrogenic Differentiation Of Adult Hepatic Stem Cells: Investigating Candidates For Osteoarthritis Treatment, Jaron Coombs, David Sonntag, Dr. Laura Bridgewater

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Osteoarthritis is a painful disease associated with the breakdown of articular cartilage, the protective protein coating of the major joints of the body. Over 20 million Americans are affected by this pervasive disease which is associated with the overuse of joints and aging. Osteoarthritis occurs when the proteins that compose articular cartilage are degraded by repetitive use and injury. These actions can lead to swelling, tearing, or flaking off of the cartilage at the surface of the bone. When cartilage loses its integrity in this manner the amount of friction in the joint greatly increases and the patient begins to …

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Comparative Study Of Total Antioxidant Activity Between The Fruit Momordica Cochinchinensis (Gac) And Its’ Major Carotenoid Constituents, Katherine Secrest, Dr. Kim O'Neill Oct 2013

Comparative Study Of Total Antioxidant Activity Between The Fruit Momordica Cochinchinensis (Gac) And Its’ Major Carotenoid Constituents, Katherine Secrest, Dr. Kim O'Neill

Journal of Undergraduate Research

The red fruit Momordica cochinchinensis (gac) grows indigenously throughout Southeast Asia and possesses naturally high levels of provitamin A carotenoids, beta-carotene and lycopene. In much of Southeast Asia, rural populations suffer from chronic vitamin A deficiency.1 Currently, government programs distribute vitamin A capsules as supplements, but long-term solutions lie in food-based alternatives. At this time, gac fruit is only consumed during annual festivals when the red pulp of the fruit is used to color rice. Consumption of gac fruit has been shown to significantly increase plasma beta-carotene concentrations and could provide an inexpensive, food-based alternative to improving the vitamin A …

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Ecology Of Two High Copy Plasmids, Ermira Pazolli, Dr. Alan Harker Oct 2013

Ecology Of Two High Copy Plasmids, Ermira Pazolli, Dr. Alan Harker

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Plasmids are genetic entities residing in the cell. They can vary in size and genetic content. There are alternate views about plasmids, but the consensus one is that they are genetic elements that are transferred from cell to cell, thus conferring resistance or performing some other function advantageous to the cell. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the behavior of plasmids as individuals ‘forced’ to cooperate under selective pressure. In the first phase, we had to extract the plasmids in large quantities and construct two similar models. Due to time constraint and other unforeseen obstacles, we have …

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Analysis Of Hnf1-Beta As A Possible Regulatory Protein For The Transcription Of The Col11a2 Collagen Gene, Nicholas M. Orme, Dr. Laura C. Bridgewater Oct 2013

Analysis Of Hnf1-Beta As A Possible Regulatory Protein For The Transcription Of The Col11a2 Collagen Gene, Nicholas M. Orme, Dr. Laura C. Bridgewater

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Cartilage is a highly specialized form of connective tissue that functions as a template for most skeletal structures and aids in supporting the tension and pressure common to most animal joint function. Abnormal cartilage formation often results from defective collagen DNA and can lead to several skeletal diseases including dwarfism, cleft palate and osteoarthritis. The purpose of this research was to investigate the regulatory role of HNF proteins in the transcription of the Col11a2 gene which codes for a collagen protein found in cartilage.

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The Implications Of Subtype Diversity Of Hiv-1 For Vaccine Development, Ryan Peterson, Dr. Keith A. Crandall Oct 2013

The Implications Of Subtype Diversity Of Hiv-1 For Vaccine Development, Ryan Peterson, Dr. Keith A. Crandall

Journal of Undergraduate Research

HIV’s ability to infect a host and grow without killing the host allows the virus to accumulate genetic diversity. Over time, HIV has diverged into a number of subtypes, differing up to 30% in their nucleic acids (2). For this reason, one of the greatest problems with vaccine development is that different subtypes express different protein variants (3). With the increase of HIV recombination and human travel, geographical patterns subtypes are becoming mixed, thus allowing the virus to explore new genetic variants and evade vaccine effectiveness (5).

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Antigenotoxic Effects Of N-Acetylcysteine On Benzo[A]Pyrene Induced Dna Damage In Hepg2 Cells As Measured By The Alkaline Comet Assay, Loni A. O'Neil, M. Todd O'Neil, Dr. Kim L. O'Neill Oct 2013

Antigenotoxic Effects Of N-Acetylcysteine On Benzo[A]Pyrene Induced Dna Damage In Hepg2 Cells As Measured By The Alkaline Comet Assay, Loni A. O'Neil, M. Todd O'Neil, Dr. Kim L. O'Neill

Journal of Undergraduate Research

A major factor involved in the risk of developing cancer with the probability of enhancing or suppressing carcinogens is dietary composition. A chemoprevention approach to cancer means preventing this disease by the administration of one or several compounds. For a number of years, N-acetylcysteine (NAC) has shown in studies to be an effective chemopreventive agent, but there have also been some studies disproving the effectiveness of NAC.1, 2 This is because NAC has different functions in different cell types. Because of this, we decided to test the effectiveness of NAC against DNA damage in human HepG2 cells and to determine …

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Investigation Into The Mechanisms Associated With Angiogenesis And Metastasis, Rachelle R. Olsen, Dr. Kim L. O'Neill Oct 2013

Investigation Into The Mechanisms Associated With Angiogenesis And Metastasis, Rachelle R. Olsen, Dr. Kim L. O'Neill

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Angiogenesis, the development and differentiation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vasculature, is tightly controlled during physiological processes including wound healing, growth, and development. Angiogenesis is also associated with several human malignancies including arthritis, psoriasis, and cancer. Angiogenesis, which provides a source of nutrients and a waste outlet for biological products, is absolutely required for a tumor to grow larger than a few millimeters in size. Blood vessels formed by angiogenesis are young and immature and can facilitate metastasis, the spread and subsequent growth of primary tumor cells to distal body sites.

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Inducing Coexistence Of Incompatible Single-Copy Plasmids With Selective Pressure, Geoffrey Benton, Dr. Alan Harker Oct 2013

Inducing Coexistence Of Incompatible Single-Copy Plasmids With Selective Pressure, Geoffrey Benton, Dr. Alan Harker

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Plasmids, which are circular molecules of extrachromosomal DNA, are often found in bacterial cells. Traditionally plasmids have been considered simply accessories to chromosomal DNA. However, recent publications have demonstrated that plasmids may be more than simply an appendage to the bacterial chromosome.

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An Exploration Of The Genotoxic Effects Of Ellagic Acid On Human Hepg2 Cells And Its Potential Impact On Cancer Prevention, Amanda Stevens, Dr. Kim O'Neill Oct 2013

An Exploration Of The Genotoxic Effects Of Ellagic Acid On Human Hepg2 Cells And Its Potential Impact On Cancer Prevention, Amanda Stevens, Dr. Kim O'Neill

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Over the past few years, cancer prevention has become a more important focus for research in the fight against cancer. Recent studies suggest that perhaps as much as 70-80 % of all cancers could be prevented by diet alone. Ellagic acid is a compound found in foods like raspberries, strawberries, and apples, and is thought to be important for cancer prevention. Benzo[a]pyrene is a potent environmental carcinogen detected in substances such as cigarette smoke, cooked foods, and fossil fuel combustion. Studies involving rodents exposed to Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), whose diets included ellagic acid (EA), showed a decrease in tumor formation as …

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Initiation Of Chloroplast Dna Replication, Michael Zundel, Dr. Brent Nielson Oct 2013

Initiation Of Chloroplast Dna Replication, Michael Zundel, Dr. Brent Nielson

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the macromolecule found in cells that carries all of our genetic information. Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus, where the DNA is housed. Plant cells also contain chloroplasts. Chloroplasts convert light energy into chemical energy, typically in the form of sugar. Chloroplasts contain DNA, which is thought to have evolved from an early symbiotic relationship between a eukaryotic cell and a prokaryotic cell, or bacterium. The eukaryotic cell engulfed the prokaryotic cell and used it for the conversion of light energy. Chloroplast DNA replicates independent of the cell cycle and the nuclear DNA.

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Detection Of Positive Selection In The Gp120 Protein Of Human Immunodeficiency Virus In Relation To Vaccine Trials, Theodore L. Oliphant, Dr. Keith A. Crandall Oct 2013

Detection Of Positive Selection In The Gp120 Protein Of Human Immunodeficiency Virus In Relation To Vaccine Trials, Theodore L. Oliphant, Dr. Keith A. Crandall

Journal of Undergraduate Research

This project’s purpose is to determine sites of positive selection in the gp120 envelope protein of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Positive selection is defined as the fixation of changes in amino acid composition in a population. A data set containing the envelope sequence from patients who contracted HIV while participating in a phase 3 efficacy trial of the AIDSVAXTM HIV vaccine was obtained from Vaxgen, the vaccine’s developer. This data is being compared with data sets taken from Genbank to identify sites along the gp120 protein which have mutated, to allow the virus to escape the antibodies generated by …

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Phosphorylation Dependent Conformational Changes Of Phob In Escherichia Coli, Allison Sparks, Dr. William Mccleary Oct 2013

Phosphorylation Dependent Conformational Changes Of Phob In Escherichia Coli, Allison Sparks, Dr. William Mccleary

Journal of Undergraduate Research

All bacteria must have a way to control cell functions when their outside environment changes. E.coli uses a phosphate signaling pathway to accomplish this. In the bacterial cell membrane, there are proteins that take up phosphate from the environment, transports it into the cell, and triggers transcription of certain genes. The system is comprised of an ATP-dependent transport system which consists of a periplasmic substrate binding protein, PstS, three membrane proteins, PstC, PstA, and PstB, a regulator, PhoU, a transmembrane histidine kinase, PhoR, and a response regulator PhoB. In this system, the response regulator, PhoB is phosphorlated and then activates …

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Purification And Characterization Of A Putative Single-Stranded Dna Binding Protein From Arabidopsis Thaliana, Andrew C. Edmondson, Dr. Brent L. Nielsen Oct 2013

Purification And Characterization Of A Putative Single-Stranded Dna Binding Protein From Arabidopsis Thaliana, Andrew C. Edmondson, Dr. Brent L. Nielsen

Journal of Undergraduate Research

DNA recombination is the exchange of segments between homologous molecules of DNA, resulting in expanded genetic diversity. Recombination provides essential genetic variation, but can also cause harmful rearrangements, resulting in genetic disorders in plants, mammals and yeast. The mechanisms and results of these events are still the subject of much research. A variety of evidence supports DNA recombination in plants, but the mechanisms are poorly understood. Researchers have proposed a bacterial RecA-mediated mechanism for DNA recombination in mitochondria based on evidence of an evolutionary relationship between bacteria and mitochondria. However, until recently, plant mitochondria had not been shown to contain …

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Permeability And Durability Effects Of Cellulose Polymer Variation In Polymer Inclusion Membranes, Jed Walker Oct 2013

Permeability And Durability Effects Of Cellulose Polymer Variation In Polymer Inclusion Membranes, Jed Walker

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Polymer inclusion membranes (PIMs) have been used as an effective means of separation of ions in solution. Due to their mechanical stability, PIMs provide a more effective method of separation than supported liquid membrane (SLM) and bulk liquid membrane (BLM) systems. PIMs also provide higher efficiency, selectivity and ease of use than the previously mentioned systems1,2. The large surface area to volume ratio that is exhibited by PIMs affords them the potential to be used in nuclear and harmful metal waste remediation on an industrial scale.

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A Novel Approach To Assessing The Metastatic Potential Of Cancer Cells, Nyall Robert London Jr., Dr. Kim O'Neill Oct 2013

A Novel Approach To Assessing The Metastatic Potential Of Cancer Cells, Nyall Robert London Jr., Dr. Kim O'Neill

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Cancer remains a major cause of death around the world today. A major problem with cancer is metastasis or the spread of cancerous cells from the tumor to a secondary location. This occurs when cancer cells break away from a primary tumor, invade the tissue, and travel through the bloodstream or lymphatic system to other parts of the body. The aim of this study was to develop a cost-effective in vivo model through which metastasis could be explored in more depth.

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Loss Of Scribble Tumor Suppressor In Human Cancers: Atypical Hscrib Expression And Localization In Malignant Breast Cancer, Daniel F. Fuja, Dr. Kim L. O'Neill Oct 2013

Loss Of Scribble Tumor Suppressor In Human Cancers: Atypical Hscrib Expression And Localization In Malignant Breast Cancer, Daniel F. Fuja, Dr. Kim L. O'Neill

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Drosophila Melanogaster has been used for years in basic developmental and genetic research, because of its short life cycle, low cost, and ease of handling. One beneficial consequence of this extensive research is an increased knowledge of human cancer progression. Multiple homologues have been found within the human model for genes initially discovered to be important in the development of Drosophila melanogaster. Three of these homologues (Hugl, hDlg, and hScrib) were initially indicated as potential tumor suppressors because of their Drosophila homologues’ roles in accurate asymmetric protein localization in the developing Drosophila neuroblast. Scribble (human homologue, hScrib), the most recently …

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The Secondary Phase Of Photorhabdus Luminescens Tt01 Is Closely Tied To The Sexual Form Of Heterorhabditis Bacteriophora, John Chaston, Dr. Byron Adams Oct 2013

The Secondary Phase Of Photorhabdus Luminescens Tt01 Is Closely Tied To The Sexual Form Of Heterorhabditis Bacteriophora, John Chaston, Dr. Byron Adams

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Photorhabdus luminescens are a symbiotically associated nematode/bacterium pair that act together as potent insect killers and have been cultured en masse for distribution as an insect control agent in agricultural settings. Heterorhabditis is a nematode species that acts as a vector to penetrate the insect exoskeleton through existing openings where it subsequently releases Photorhabdus, the bacterial symbiont that it carries in its gut, into the haemocoel of the invaded insect. The bacteria produce a variety of proteases and toxins that digest the insides of the insect into nutrients they use as they rapidly replicate. The nematode then …

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The Effect Of P53 And Resveratrol On Cell Growth And Repair, Meredith Bergin, Dr. Kim L. O'Neill Oct 2013

The Effect Of P53 And Resveratrol On Cell Growth And Repair, Meredith Bergin, Dr. Kim L. O'Neill

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Macrophage migration inhibition factor (MIF) induces many positive immune activities, but it has been implicated in causing cancer, specifically through its inhibition of p53, a tumor suppressing protein. It has been suggested that resveratrol, a grape seed extract, activates p53, thus suppressing tumors by inducing apoptosis.

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Relative Rates Of Molecular Evolution In Antarctic Nematodes, Tj Bliss, Dr. Byron J. Adams Oct 2013

Relative Rates Of Molecular Evolution In Antarctic Nematodes, Tj Bliss, Dr. Byron J. Adams

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Molecular evolution is defined as any change in the genetic makeup of an organism. Since organisms of the same species and community tend to undergo similar molecular changes, rates of molecular evolution are often measured at the species level. It is well established that different species appear to evolve at different rates across evolutionary time. Comparing the rates of evolution among different species determines the relative rate of molecular evolution in those species. Many things are known to affect the rate of molecular evolution of a species. These influences include, but are not limited to: body size, generation time, and …

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Selection, Horizontal Gene Transfer And Convergent Molecular Evolution In Plant-Parasitic Nematodes, Adler Ray Dillman, Dr. Bryon J. Adams Oct 2013

Selection, Horizontal Gene Transfer And Convergent Molecular Evolution In Plant-Parasitic Nematodes, Adler Ray Dillman, Dr. Bryon J. Adams

Journal of Undergraduate Research

The phylum Nematoda is a large and diverse group, making-up an estimated 80% of Metazoans [1]. Of specific agricultural importance are the plant-parasitic nematodes, which are responsible for the loss of an estimated 12.3% of the world’s annual crop production [2]. We looked at the most destructive members of the family Heteroderidae, the cyst (Heterodera and Globodera spp.) and root-knot (Meloidogyne spp.) nematodes.

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Comparison Of Microbial Community Biodiversity Between Pristine And Disturbed Sediments In Timpanogos Cave, National Monument, Andre Bennin, Dr. Keith A. Crandall Oct 2013

Comparison Of Microbial Community Biodiversity Between Pristine And Disturbed Sediments In Timpanogos Cave, National Monument, Andre Bennin, Dr. Keith A. Crandall

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Cave microbiology has been of great interest to microbial ecologists in recent years because it has enabled them to assess microbial diversity within an isolated system. An excellent example of subterranean microbial life is found in Lechuguilla Cave Carlsbad Caverns National Park, New Mexico,where the interactions of microbial communities in cave deep subsurface environments have been studied. With respect to the Timpanogos Cave system in American Fork Utah, our study relates to a system that is highly visited (60% of the cave system) contrary to the Lechuguilla cave system where public access is only allowed into 2% of the cave …

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A Quadruplex Real-Time Pcr Assay For The Rapid Detection And Differentiation Of The Burkholderia Pseudomallei Complex: B. Mallei, B. Pseudomallei, And B. Thailandensis, Chinn-Woan Lowe Oct 2013

A Quadruplex Real-Time Pcr Assay For The Rapid Detection And Differentiation Of The Burkholderia Pseudomallei Complex: B. Mallei, B. Pseudomallei, And B. Thailandensis, Chinn-Woan Lowe

Theses and Dissertations

Methods for the rapid detection and differentiation of the Burkholderia pseudomallei complex comprising B. pseudomallei, B. mallei, and B. thailandensis, have been the topic of recent research due to the high degree of phenotypic and genotypic similarities of these species. B. pseudomallei and B. mallei are the causative agents of melioidosis and glanders, respectively. B. pseudomallei and B. mallei are recognized by the CDC as tier 1 select agents. Although B. thailandensis is generally avirulent in mammals, this species displays very similar phenotypic characteristics to that of B. pseudomallei. Optimal identification of these species remains problematic, …

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Medical Options For Treating Parasitic Diseases In Ashanti-Mampong, Ghana, West Africa, Whitney Elizabeth Wheeler, Dr. James B. Jensen Sep 2013

Medical Options For Treating Parasitic Diseases In Ashanti-Mampong, Ghana, West Africa, Whitney Elizabeth Wheeler, Dr. James B. Jensen

Journal of Undergraduate Research

I conducted my research in Ashanti-Mampong, Ghana, West Africa over the course of 3 months. My project was to study the medical options available to patients that had malaria and/or worms.

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Development Of A Novel Human Vestibular Schwannoma Xenograft Model In Scid Mice, John Welling, Dr. Kim O'Neil Sep 2013

Development Of A Novel Human Vestibular Schwannoma Xenograft Model In Scid Mice, John Welling, Dr. Kim O'Neil

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Vestibular Schwannoma (VS) is a benign, slow growing tumor that arises from the myelin sheath of the vestibular nerve (cranial nerve VIII). The myelin sheath is composed of flat, layered cells known as Schwann cells, which serve to insulate nerve fibers. It is increased proliferation of these Schwann cells which leads to VS tumor growth. As VS tumors grow, they place increasing pressure on cranial nerve VIII, causing hearing loss, tinnitus (ringing in the ear), and balance dysfunction. Eventually VS tumors may lead to brainstem compression and even death.1

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Stromal-Cell Derived Factor-1Α And Macrophages Increased Invasive Potential Of Breast Cancer Cells, Devin Twitchell, Dr. Kim L. O'Neill Sep 2013

Stromal-Cell Derived Factor-1Α And Macrophages Increased Invasive Potential Of Breast Cancer Cells, Devin Twitchell, Dr. Kim L. O'Neill

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Research has demonstrated that in some tumors, up to fifty percent of a breast tumor’s mass is composed of macrophages (1). It is well recognized that macrophages can inhibit tumor growth and, paradoxically, stimulate tumor growth and metastasis depending on the proteins produced (2). Macrophages located within the tumor environment are classified as tumor-associated macrophages. The migration of cancer cells from the primary tumor to a secondary site is a multipart process. How tumors are able to proliferate and invade into foreign areas is still unclear. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that the presence of macrophages in primary tumors …

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Multidisciplinary Database For Byu Fag El Gamous Excavations, Ryan Pail Peters, Richard Paul Evans Sep 2013

Multidisciplinary Database For Byu Fag El Gamous Excavations, Ryan Pail Peters, Richard Paul Evans

Journal of Undergraduate Research

In 1990, under the direction of Wilfred Griggs, he and six other Brigham Young University (BYU) professors, R. Paul Evans, James Farmer, Marek Kaliszewski, Donald Robertson, Mark Rowe, and Scott Woodward, and at the request of the Egyptian Government Supreme Council of Antiquities, united to begin tissue sampling and DNA analysis of the estimated 150,000 burials at the ancient Fag el Gamous cemetery in Fayum, Egypt, which was utilized approximately between 350 B.C.E. to 500 C.E.

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Improved Culture Technique For Mycobacterium Ulcerans, Neal S. Thomson, Dr. Richard Robison Sep 2013

Improved Culture Technique For Mycobacterium Ulcerans, Neal S. Thomson, Dr. Richard Robison

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Mycobacterium ulcerans is a pathogenic bacterium and is the causative agent of Buruli Ulcer, a common mycobacterial disease similar to tuberculosis and leprosy. Buruli Ulcer is endemic to Western Africa and produces a deforming and sometimes lethal skin disease. One major obstacle for research is the slow growth of the bacterium in batch culture. M. ulcerans currently grows in vitro with a doubling time of about 4.8 days, resulting in an average culture time of 8-10 weeks before the appearance of colonies. This evidence makes it difficult to study M. ulcerans in the laboratory. The goal of my research was …

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Population Structure Of The Cuttlefish Sepia Officinalis From The North Atlantic-Mediterranean Region, Mark Joseph Nolte, Dr. Keith Crandall, Marcos Pérez-Losada Sep 2013

Population Structure Of The Cuttlefish Sepia Officinalis From The North Atlantic-Mediterranean Region, Mark Joseph Nolte, Dr. Keith Crandall, Marcos Pérez-Losada

Journal of Undergraduate Research

An understanding of the relatedness of a population of organisms, or their phylogeny, combined with knowledge of that population’s geographical distribution, can illuminate which geographic forces and events may have played a role in forming the “family tree” of that organism. Therefore past speciation events and the incipient stages of speciation can be discerned when phylogenetic and geographic information is merged. This process, broadly known as the practice of phylogeography or biogeography, is important because it permits researchers to visualize the evolutionary interplay between environment and organism. Additionally, an understanding of an organism’s population structure, or family tree, enables scientists …

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