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2013

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Articles 6781 - 6810 of 7289

Full-Text Articles in Engineering

Stopping Spam With Sending Session Verification, Ahmet Baran Jan 2013

Stopping Spam With Sending Session Verification, Ahmet Baran

Turkish Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences

Spam has become one of the most significant problems for Internet communication and users today. The traditional filtering methods and signature-based spam blocking systems that have come into prominence recently fall short, as statistics demonstrate that spam further mounts up day after day. In this study, a new method is recommended to block spam mails. In this recommended method, a mail sending session is verified during mail envelope communication by adding small attachments to the simple mail transfer protocol, so spam mails can be blocked before leaving the sender domain or relay machine. Additionally, hijacked user accounts are able to …

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Xor-Based Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm For Binary Optimization, Mustafa Servet Kiran, Mesut Gündüz Jan 2013

Xor-Based Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm For Binary Optimization, Mustafa Servet Kiran, Mesut Gündüz

Turkish Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences

The artificial bee colony (ABC) algorithm, which was inspired by the foraging and dance behaviors of real honey bee colonies, was first introduced for solving numerical optimization problems. When the solution space of the optimization problem is binary-structured, the basic ABC algorithm should be modified for solving this class of problems. In this study, we propose XOR-based modification for the solution-updating equation of the ABC algorithm in order to solve binary optimization problems. The proposed method, named binary ABC (binABC), is examined on an uncapacitated facility location problem, which is a pure binary optimization problem, and the results obtained by …

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Hybrid Spr Algorithm To Select Predictive Genes For Effectual Cancer Classification, Aruna Sundaram, Nandakishore Lellapalli Venkata, Rajagopalan Sarukai Parthasarathy Jan 2013

Hybrid Spr Algorithm To Select Predictive Genes For Effectual Cancer Classification, Aruna Sundaram, Nandakishore Lellapalli Venkata, Rajagopalan Sarukai Parthasarathy

Turkish Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences

Designing an automated system for classifying DNA microarray data is an extremely challenging problem because of its high dimension and low amount of sample data. In this paper, a hybrid statistical pattern recognition algorithm is proposed to reduce the dimensionality and select the predictive genes for the classification of cancer. Colon cancer gene expression profiles having 62 samples of 2000 genes were used for the experiment. A gene subset of 6 highly informative genes was selected by the algorithm, which provided a classification accuracy of 93.5%.

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Flow Velocity Measurement And Analysis Based On Froth Image Sift Features And Kalman Filter For Froth Flotation, Jinping Liu, Weihua Gui, Zhaohui Tang Jan 2013

Flow Velocity Measurement And Analysis Based On Froth Image Sift Features And Kalman Filter For Froth Flotation, Jinping Liu, Weihua Gui, Zhaohui Tang

Turkish Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences

The flow velocity of flotation froth involves important information about the concentrate grade and the mineral recovery. It is significant to maintain the flow velocity of the froth at proper levels to achieve a good production performance in the machine vision-based process monitoring and control. However, the accurate velocity field measurement for the heavily deformed and seriously fragile froth bubbles is still a great challenge. Scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT) feature-based image matching provides an effective registration method for deformed objects, but most of the processing time would be wasted on the feature extraction and matching in irrelevant regions of the …

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Variability And Characteristics Of Recycled Asphalt Shingles Sampled From Different Sources, Aaron Lodge Jan 2013

Variability And Characteristics Of Recycled Asphalt Shingles Sampled From Different Sources, Aaron Lodge

LSU Master's Theses

Recent literature studies have demonstrated depletion in natural resources; therefore, making resources needed for the pavement industry is more costly. There is a need to minimize cost and to try to reduce the depletion of natural resources. While the recycling of asphalt shingles is beneficial in reducing the consumption of virgin materials, pavement performance should not be compromised. One major concern with recycled asphalt shingles (RAS) relates to the variability in the properties of the recycled materials originating from different sources. In addition, the rheological properties of RAS have not been evaluated as well as its influence on the virgin …

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Performance And Power Comparisons Between Fermi And Cypress Gpus, Ying Zhang Jan 2013

Performance And Power Comparisons Between Fermi And Cypress Gpus, Ying Zhang

LSU Master's Theses

In recent years, modern graphics processing units have been widely adopted in high performance computing areas to solve large scale computation problems. The leading GPU manufacturers Nvidia and AMD have introduced series of products to the market. While sharing many similar design concepts, GPUs from these two manufacturers differ in several aspects on processor cores and the memory subsystem. In this work, we conduct a comprehensive study to characterize and compare the architectural features of Nvidia’s Fermi and AMD’s Cypress GPUs. We first investigate the performance and power consumptions of an AMD Cypress GPU. By employing a rigorous statistical model …

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Steady And Unsteady Thermo-Strucural Simulation Of Thermally Actuated Micro- And Nano-Structures, Elham Maghsoudi Jan 2013

Steady And Unsteady Thermo-Strucural Simulation Of Thermally Actuated Micro- And Nano-Structures, Elham Maghsoudi

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

This dissertation provides a thermo-structural simulation for nano-scale and micro-scale structures with pinned and fixed boundary conditions which are either thermally positioned, buckled, or actuated. The study begins with simulating a pinned-pinned beam in micro-scale and nano-scale. The steady state thermo-structural equation is solved numerically using an implicit Finite Difference method implemented in Matlab to obtain the thermal positioning response, which is the thermally steady state center displacement, by adding a constant, time-independent heat flux to the structure. The results show the steady state thermal displacement of the system is a function of the geometry, pressure, material properties, and constant …

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Abundance And Diversity Of Organohalide-Respiring Bacteria In Lake Sediments Across A Geographical Sulfur Gradient, Patrick J. Mcnamara, Benjamin B. Crary, Paige J. Novak, Mark J. Krzmarzick Jan 2013

Abundance And Diversity Of Organohalide-Respiring Bacteria In Lake Sediments Across A Geographical Sulfur Gradient, Patrick J. Mcnamara, Benjamin B. Crary, Paige J. Novak, Mark J. Krzmarzick

Civil and Environmental Engineering Faculty Research and Publications

Across the U.S. Upper Midwest, a natural geographical sulfate gradient exists in lakes. Sediment grab samples and cores were taken to explore whether this sulfur gradient impacted organohalide-respiring Chloroflexi in lake sediments. Putative organohalide-respiring Chloroflexi were detected in 67 of 68 samples by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Their quantities ranged from 3.5 × 104 to 8.4 × 1010 copies 16S rRNA genes g−1 dry sediment and increased in number from west to east, whereas lake sulfate concentrations decreased along this west-to-east transect. A terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (TRFLP) method was used to corroborate this inverse relationship, …

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Finite Element Modeling Of Hot-Mix Asphalt Performance In The Laboratory, Hao Ying Jan 2013

Finite Element Modeling Of Hot-Mix Asphalt Performance In The Laboratory, Hao Ying

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

The theoretical investigation of Hot-Mix Asphalt (HMA) response in the dynamic modulus and the semi-circular bending (SCB) laboratory test procedures is necessary to understand the influence of various design parameters on the performance of the mix. In addition, laboratory tests such as the dynamic complex modulus assume that this material can be dealt with as a homogeneous material while overlooking the particulate nature of this composite. The ultimate goal of this study is to develop an advanced theoretical framework, based on three-dimensional (3D) finite element (FE) methods and digital image analysis techniques to describe the behavior of HMA in two …

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Engineering Of Hydroponic Systems To Enhance Biomass Of Sea Oats (Uniola Paniculata), Stefanie Renee Gilliam Jan 2013

Engineering Of Hydroponic Systems To Enhance Biomass Of Sea Oats (Uniola Paniculata), Stefanie Renee Gilliam

LSU Master's Theses

Restoration projects use native plants such as sea oats (Uniola paniculata) to help stabilize the coast. Sea oats are a native grass that can collect blowing sand to build dunes. Sea oats used in the restoration projects can be produced using sexual or asexual techniques. An ideal seedling would be genetically distinct, have increased seed production and germination, and have superior vegetative biomass. Finding ways to produce, propagate, and grow coastal plants such as sea oats effectively is critical to efforts to reduce erosion. In this study, production of sea oats via greenhouse based hydroponic systems was studied. This was …

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Development Of A Laboratory Scale Reactor Facility To Generate Hydrogen Rich Syngas Via Thermochemical Energy Conversion, Mandeep Sharma Jan 2013

Development Of A Laboratory Scale Reactor Facility To Generate Hydrogen Rich Syngas Via Thermochemical Energy Conversion, Mandeep Sharma

LSU Master's Theses

The thesis provides data needed for development of a conical spouted bed (CSB) reactor for the purpose of producing hydrogen rich synthesis gas (syngas). The syngas has potential to utilize energy more efficiently, eliminate pollutant emissions and significantly cut emissions of greenhouse gases. The development of CSB reactor system involves three phases. The first phase investigates the hydrodynamic behavior of a small, laboratory scale, conical spouted bed (CSB) by considering the effect of specific system parameters (stagnated bed height, particle size and inlet diameter) on minimum spouting velocity (ums)o, stable operating pressure drop (∆Pms) and maximum pressure drop (∆PM). Experimental …

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Mechanistic Analysis And Reduced Order Modeling Of Forced Film Cooling Flows, Guillaume Francois Bidan Jan 2013

Mechanistic Analysis And Reduced Order Modeling Of Forced Film Cooling Flows, Guillaume Francois Bidan

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

Abstract Unforced and forced film cooling jets are investigated in view to develop a reduced order model of the velocity and temperature fields. First, a vertical jet in cross-flow, a configuration well documented at high blowing ratios, is investigated at low blowing ratios using experimental visualizations and large eddy simulations. The unforced study reveals that dominant structures at low blowing ratio can be significantly different from the ones formed at high blowing ratio and describes their evolution and transition as the blowing ratio is changed. The forced jet investigations extend the results of past numerical studies in terms of starting …

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Quantification Of The Environmental Impact Of Titanium Dioxide Photocatalytic Pavements For Air Pollution Remediation, Heather Lee Dylla Jan 2013

Quantification Of The Environmental Impact Of Titanium Dioxide Photocatalytic Pavements For Air Pollution Remediation, Heather Lee Dylla

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

Photocatalytic concrete pavements are a promising technology for mobile source air pollution remediation, however before widespread application of this technology is realized many unanswered questions remain regarding its overall environmental impact. In response to these questions, the goal of this study was to increase the understanding of the environmental impact of photocatalytic concrete pavement highways. To achieve this goal, the objectives of this study were to (A) construct a model that evaluates the nitrogen oxides (NOx) reduction from photocatalytic pavements, (B) quantify the nitrates released from the photocatalytic degradation of NOx, and (C) identify and characterize pathways for TiO2 nanoparticle …

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Numerical Evaluation And Analysis Of The Adhesion Phenomena In Thermal Barrier Coating Systems Through Bio-Mimicking Plasma Process, Naser Imran Hossain Jan 2013

Numerical Evaluation And Analysis Of The Adhesion Phenomena In Thermal Barrier Coating Systems Through Bio-Mimicking Plasma Process, Naser Imran Hossain

LSU Master's Theses

Thermal Barrier Coatings or TBCs when abbreviated are an imperative part of the thermal protection system of expensive equipment and machinery in the automobile and aeronautics industry. They provide protection to expensive alloy materials upto a temperature of 2700° C without expensive metallurgical additions. Unfortunately, the problem of coating adhesion has plagued the TBC field for years, leading to catastrophic failures in critical TBC systems. Efforts to chemically improve bond strength has not been entirely successful, so the only other efficient way to do this would be some kind of mechanical interlocking that occurs at micro/nano scales. This research work …

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Biofilter Treatment Of Gas Phase Β-Caryophyllene At Elevated Temperature, Yiying Yue Jan 2013

Biofilter Treatment Of Gas Phase Β-Caryophyllene At Elevated Temperature, Yiying Yue

LSU Master's Theses

Industrial wood processing operations generate a variety of gaseous emissions containing volatile organic compounds (VOCs). One of the VOCs emitted from the processing of coniferous softwood tree species is β-caryophyllene, a naturally occurring sesquiterpene of environmental concern. One approach that may be attractive for treating gaseous emissions of β-caryophyllene from wood processing operations is the use of fixed-film processes commonly referred to as biofiltration. Previously, it was established that β-caryophyllene can be successfully treated via biofiltration at temperatures in the mesophilic range. Many gaseous emissions from industrial wood processing operations, however, are higher in temperature than those employed in the …

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Optimizing Light Requirements And Dilution Rates For Maximizing Algal Cell Growth And Lipid Content For Biofuel Feedstock Production, Beatrice Gabriela Terigar Jan 2013

Optimizing Light Requirements And Dilution Rates For Maximizing Algal Cell Growth And Lipid Content For Biofuel Feedstock Production, Beatrice Gabriela Terigar

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

There is a rapidly growing interest in the potential of microalgae as feedstock for the next generation of biofuels. The current study was designed to meet the following objectives: (1) Investigate the interdependence among cell density, biomass and lipid productivity to maximize feedstock production from outdoor cultures; (2) Investigate the effect of cycling high-intensity lights to identify optimum Dark:Light (D/L) ratios, which can be effectively used by researchers to maximize aerial biomass productivities; (3) Develop a deterministic model to simulate the biomass productivity in an continuous-flow bioreactor at various hydraulic retention times. Results indicated that variation in HRTs has a …

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Sedimentation Of Swarms Of Particles At Low And Moderate Reynolds Numbers, Oladapo Olanrewaju Ayeni Jan 2013

Sedimentation Of Swarms Of Particles At Low And Moderate Reynolds Numbers, Oladapo Olanrewaju Ayeni

LSU Master's Theses

The sedimentation of a cloud of particles in a viscous fluid at low and moderate Reynolds numbers has been studied using an Eulerian-Lagrangian multiphase flow approach. We looked at the volume fraction dependence of the settling cloud and find a similar dependence in the simulations as in the theoretical predictions of (Nitsche and Batchelor 1997). The average cloud settling velocity and the velocity fluctuations around this average are found to have a functional dependence on ö^1/3 at negligible Reynolds number. The velocity fluctuations display strong anisotropy with the magnitude of the vertical component almost three times the magnitude of the …

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Analytical Modeling And Diagnosis Of Penetration Rate Performance Of Pdc Bits, Reza Rahmani Jan 2013

Analytical Modeling And Diagnosis Of Penetration Rate Performance Of Pdc Bits, Reza Rahmani

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

The high cost of drilling deep (15000+ ft) wells, due to slow rate of penetration (ROP) at depth, has severely limited the utilization and economic significance of deep hydrocarbon resources. The overall objective of this study was to obtain a better understanding of the major cause(s) of slow ROP in deep drilling. An analysis of field data demonstrated the impact of the problem and identified shale and limestone as the primary lithologies where slow ROP occurs at depth. Previous researchers have concluded that interactions between rock, drilling fluid, cuttings, and the bit control ROP. More specifically, several researchers have concluded …

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Topology And Shape Optimization Of Hydrodynamically–Lubricated Bearings For Enhanced Load-Carrying Capacity, Mohammad Fesanghary Jan 2013

Topology And Shape Optimization Of Hydrodynamically–Lubricated Bearings For Enhanced Load-Carrying Capacity, Mohammad Fesanghary

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

Bearings are basic and essential components of nearly all machinery. They must be designed to work under different loads, speeds, and environments. Of all the performance parameters, load-carrying capacity (LCC) is often the most crucial design constraint. The objective of this research is to investigate different design methodologies that significantly improve the LCC of liquid-lubricated bearings. This goal can be achieved by either altering the surface texture or the bearing geometrical configuration. The methodology used here is based on mathematical topological/shape optimization algorithms. These methods can effectively improve the design performance while avoiding time-consuming trial-and-error design techniques. The first category …

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Framework Of Damage Detection In Vehicle-Bridge Coupled System And Application To Bridge Scour Monitoring, Xuan Kong Jan 2013

Framework Of Damage Detection In Vehicle-Bridge Coupled System And Application To Bridge Scour Monitoring, Xuan Kong

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

Most vibration-based damage identification methods make use of measurements directly from bridge structures with attached sensors. However, the vehicle moving on the bridge can serve as both an active actuator and a response receiver. This dissertation aimed to develop new methodologies to eventually detect bridge damages such as scour using the dynamic response of the vehicle. To reach the final objective, a framework of damage identification was developed first, which gave a guideline on the three crucial steps for damage detection. An optimization method was proposed that combines the Genetic Algorithm (GA) and the First Order (FO) method. It has …

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Modeling, Simulation And Analysis Of Renewable Energy Production Systems: Application To Multi-Product Biorefineries, Aryan Geraili Nejadfomeshi Jan 2013

Modeling, Simulation And Analysis Of Renewable Energy Production Systems: Application To Multi-Product Biorefineries, Aryan Geraili Nejadfomeshi

LSU Master's Theses

The primary purpose of this research is to investigate the design and modelling of fully integrated processes which utilize renewable feedstock as raw materials and evaluate the alternative technology and possible process integration options for biorefinery processes to select the optimal configuration based on the production yields and economical profit criteria. The case study considered in this work is a lignocellulosic biorefinery plant which has different technology choices for each section of the process and the ability to produce multi-products from lignocellulosic raw materials. We analyzed different scenarios by simulating the superstructures in Aspen Plus. To incorporate more non-linarites in …

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Geometric Modeling And Optimization Over Regular Domains For Graphics And Visual Computing, Shenghua Wan Jan 2013

Geometric Modeling And Optimization Over Regular Domains For Graphics And Visual Computing, Shenghua Wan

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

The effective construction of parametric representation of complicated geometric objects can facilitate many design, analysis, and simulation tasks in Computer-Aided Design (CAD), Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM), and Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE). Given a 3D shape, the procedure of finding such a parametric representation upon a canonical domain is called geometric parameterization. Regular geometric regions, such as polycubes and spheres, are desirable domains for parameterization. Parametric representations defined upon regular geometric domains have many desirable mathematical properties and can facilitate or simplify various surface/solid modeling and processing computation. This dissertation studies the construction of parameterization on regular geometric domains and explores their applications …

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A Feasibility Study Of Multi-Functional Wells For Water Coning Control And Disposal, Lu Jin Jan 2013

A Feasibility Study Of Multi-Functional Wells For Water Coning Control And Disposal, Lu Jin

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

Although water coning is well understood, it is difficult to control in field operations resulting in low recovery and large volumes of waste produced water. A solution - proposed here - is a multi-functional well with the in-situ bottom water drainage and injection installations - Downhole Water Loop (DWL). Theoretically, DWL greatly improves well performance (for example, a two-fold increase of DWL well’s water drainage rate would increase the critical (water-free) oil rate by 80%). However, DWL has practical limitations that must be quantified for actual well design. The objective of this work is to: (1) find maximum water drainage …

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Analysis And Optimization Of Film Cooling Effectiveness, Hessam Babaee Jan 2013

Analysis And Optimization Of Film Cooling Effectiveness, Hessam Babaee

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

In the first part, an optimization strategy is described that combines high-fidelity simu- lations with response surface construction, and is applied to pulsed film cooling for turbine blades. The response surface is constructed for the film cooling effectiveness as a function of duty cycle, in the range of DC between 0.05 and 1, and pulsation frequency St in the range of 0.2-2, using a pseudo-spectral projection method. The jet is fully modulated and the blowing ratio, when the jet is on, is 1.5 in all cases. Overall 73 direct numerical sim- ulations (DNS) using spectral element method were performed to …

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Gpu Acceleration Of The Variational Monte Carlo Method For Many Body Physics, Kaushik Ragavan Rajagopalan Jan 2013

Gpu Acceleration Of The Variational Monte Carlo Method For Many Body Physics, Kaushik Ragavan Rajagopalan

LSU Master's Theses

High-Performance computing is one of the major areas making inroads into the future for large-scale simulation. Applications such as 3D nuclear test, Molecular Dynamics, and Quantum Monte Carlo simulations are now developed on supercomputers using the latest computing technologies. As per the TOP500 supercomputers rating, most of today‘s supercomputers are now heterogeneous: with massively parallel Graphics Processing Units (GPU) equipped with Multi-core CPU(s) to increase the computational capacity. The Variational Monte Carlo(VMC) method is used in the Many Body Physics to study the ground state properties of a system. The wavefunction depends on some variational parameters, which contain the physics …

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Comparison Of In Vivo Human Knee Joint Kinematics Using Axodes, Jacob Hipps Jan 2013

Comparison Of In Vivo Human Knee Joint Kinematics Using Axodes, Jacob Hipps

LSU Master's Theses

The human knee is of particular interest because of its importance in mobility. Pain and stability can be directly related to the motion, or kinematics, of the knee. Many studies have been conducted to quantify human knee kinematics, both in vitro and in vivo. One of the inherent issues with in vivo, skin mounted measurement systems is that they do not account for soft tissue artifact. Compensation for soft tissue artifact has been a difficult challenge for skin mounted tracking systems and has not yet been achieved. Therefore, bone mounted skeletal pins were chosen as the method of gathering kinematic …

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Molecular Dynamics Of Interfacial Phenomena At Air/Ice, Air/Water, And Air/Salt Water Interfaces, Thilanga Prabhash Liyana Arachchi Jan 2013

Molecular Dynamics Of Interfacial Phenomena At Air/Ice, Air/Water, And Air/Salt Water Interfaces, Thilanga Prabhash Liyana Arachchi

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

The purpose of this research is to investigate the adsorption of organic contaminants, namely polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and green leaf volatiles (GLVs), as well as their interactions with reactive oxygen species (ROSs) on atmospheric air/water and air/ice interfaces. In another series of projects, we studied several intermediate and semi-volatile organic compounds from oil (IVOCs and SVOCs, e.g., alkanes with 17-31 carbon atoms), surfactants and dispersants at air/salt water interfaces. These simulations are relevant to understand the fate of these compounds during the recent 2010 Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil spill. The adsorption of gas-phase aromatics (benzene, naphthalene and phenanthrene), ROSs …

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Silver Nanoparticles As Drug Delivery Systems, Ammar Tahseen Qureshi Jan 2013

Silver Nanoparticles As Drug Delivery Systems, Ammar Tahseen Qureshi

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

The goal of this project is to study the potential applications of silver nanoparticles (SNPs) in the medical device and pharmaceutical industries. Bone cements have been used in the orthopedic surgeries for many years to anchor prosthetics while filling up the spaces between the prostheses and bone. Antibiotics are an active component of bone cements but the increasing bacterial resistance to these antibiotics and difficulty of shaping and molding the bone cements increases the need for new antimicrobial biomaterials. Adult stem cell based regenerative therapies have been one of the most widely researched areas of tissue engineering. This is due …

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Activity Of Halide-Free Flux At Copper And Tin Surfaces, Guoying Qu Jan 2013

Activity Of Halide-Free Flux At Copper And Tin Surfaces, Guoying Qu

LSU Master's Theses

The activity of halogen-free carboxylic acid flux is considered one of the most important aspects in controlling flip chip joint quality recently. In this work, we examined the CuOx removal effectiveness of carboxylic acid solutions at Cu substrates using electrochemical methods at elevated temperatures from 100ºC to 180ºC. Reaction kinetics of CuOx removal were investigated by chronopotentiometry and gravimetric analysis. FTIR was used to study the surface chemistry, and spectrophotometry was used to understand reactant and product solubility. Kinetics of carboxylic acid solution such as adipic acid or maleic acid in polyethylene glycol (PEG) with and without complexing agents such …

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The Uplift Resistance Of Spartina Alterniflora In A Louisiana Salt Marsh, James Madison Bouanchaud Iii Jan 2013

The Uplift Resistance Of Spartina Alterniflora In A Louisiana Salt Marsh, James Madison Bouanchaud Iii

LSU Master's Theses

The uprooting resistance of Spartina Alterniflora was measured in Terrebonne Bay and Bay Jimmy, both of which are located in Louisiana. The parameters collected included plant uprooting resistance, stem diameter, and stem height. Seasonal variations and site specific properties were considered. A device was designed and constructed that was able to perform the specific testing under the constraints of the field site. The device consisted of a winch mounted to a tripod and connected to an inline load cell to measure the uprooting resistance. The data sets were analyzed to determine the relationship between the uprooting resistance and the physical …

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