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Full-Text Articles in Social and Behavioral Sciences

Metabolic Theories Of Aging, Chris Burley, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Metabolic Theories Of Aging, Chris Burley, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Metabolic theories of aging postulate that aging is due to energy expenditure, which ultimately results in the breakdown and eventual death of cells. Historically, within the realm of metabolic theories of aging, there have been three models: The Rate-of-Living theory, The Oxidative Damage/Free Radical theory, and the Metabolic Stability theory. All three theories maintain that aging is directly related to metabolic rate, but the theories differ in how they arrive at that conclusion.

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Maria Montessori, Vanessa Braun, Donna Devaughn Kreskey Apr 2025

Maria Montessori, Vanessa Braun, Donna Devaughn Kreskey

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Maria Tecla Artemesia Montessori (born August 31, 1870, Chiaravalle, near Ancona, Italy – died May 6, 1952, Noordwijk aan Zee, Netherlands) was an Italian educator.  She is commonly remembered for the many schools around the globe that bear her name and implement her educational methods, the Montessori system. Maria Montessori was a scientist, educator, activist, and advocate for children.

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Writing Skills: The Essentials, Gina Braun Apr 2025

Writing Skills: The Essentials, Gina Braun

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Writing Skills are an essential component of communicating and develop over time. It does not matter the intention of writing, it is a skill used daily, and we must prepare our students to have the adequate skills they will need to function as writers. Writing skills taught in school are focused on academic writing, which should transfer and generalize across settings. Writing skills take on different forms with a variety of levels of importance. The necessary writing skills needed include; the writing process, which is supported by, mechanics, writing for a variety of purposes, and finally, building technological skills.

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Friendship Among Children, Caitlin F. Herman, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Friendship Among Children, Caitlin F. Herman, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Friendships in childhood are essential to overall development, beyond having someone to socialize with. Research suggests that friendships in children can help mitigate psychopathology, can be considered protective factors against being bullied and acting as a bully, and help with developing strong cultural competence. Aspects of friendships such as quality and intimacy of the relationship, as well as quantity of friends have been investigated for their importance in moderating many of these factors. Lack of friendships can lead to both short-term and long-term challenges for children, such as loneliness and feeling isolated from peers, anxiety and other internalizing disorders, and …

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Emotional Expression In Children, Caitlin F. Herman, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Emotional Expression In Children, Caitlin F. Herman, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

The development of emotional expression begins from the time an infant bonds with his or her caregiver. Establishing this bond occurs through both the caregiver expressing her feelings to the child and understanding the emotions expressed by the infant. This communication is almost exclusively non-verbal for a long period of time, which requires understanding of and ability to express emotions via facial expressions and vocal inflections. Infants use non-verbal communication to express needs and wants, and the caregiver’s ability to respond to these expressions appropriately is essential to establishing emotional bonds and a confidence in the ability to have one’s …

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James Mark Baldwin, Scott Harcourt Apr 2025

James Mark Baldwin, Scott Harcourt

Essays in Developmental Psychology

James Baldwin was born on January 12, 1861 in Columbia, South Carolina. He attended secondary school in New Jersey. He initially planned on a life in the ministry, but in his first year at Princeton (then the College of New Jersey), he fell under the tutelage of the Scottish Realist James McCosh, and studied empirical psychology instead, graduating as valedictorian in 1894. He spent a fellowship year in Germany and France, studying with Wundt in Leipzig, before returning to Princeton for his Ph.D. He then taught at Lake Forest University for two years, during which time he married.

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Ecological Systems Approach In Sociology, Diana Hincapie, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Ecological Systems Approach In Sociology, Diana Hincapie, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Sociology as a philosophy is highly concerned with the collaboration of the environment and how the environment’s transactions with the individual affect one another. The Ecological Systems theory, as it is known today, speaks on the interaction between different sociological environments and how it affects the developing individual. Thanks to the work of Charles Booth and Seebohm Rowntree, in the United Kingdom, alongside Paul Kellogg in the United States, there is a better understanding about how an individual affects their environment and vice versa. Their work, specifically their research in assessing the needs of low socioeconomic status (SES) individuals in …

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Word Learning Rules In Children, Caitlin F. Herman, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Word Learning Rules In Children, Caitlin F. Herman, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

The ability to learn new words requires the use of numerous cognitive functions. It is expected that from the time a child begins speaking around 12 months of age to about six years old, children learn approximately 14,000 words (Templin, 1957 as cited in Brady & Goodman, 2014).  From an early age, children are exposed to the language used around them and slowly develop their own use of language through recognition of objects, combination of phonemes, and memorization of visual and auditory stimuli. In order to successfully master language and learn new words, a child must integrate these processes to …

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Perspective Taking Stages, Caitlin F. Herman, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Perspective Taking Stages, Caitlin F. Herman, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Perspective taking is the ability to gain an understanding of how another person is thinking or feeling about an event based on the information which is available. Learning to understand the perspective of another person is an ability that develops over childhood through many stages. Typically, this concept is first grasped by school age, or around 6 to 7 years of age. There are multiple types of perspectives that can be taken as well, including physical or visual perspective, affective perspective, cognitive perspective, or perspective of communication. Each of these types is important for social behaviors and the ability to …

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Mamie P. Clark, Jayla Hill, Simon Howard, Kalen Kennedy Apr 2025

Mamie P. Clark, Jayla Hill, Simon Howard, Kalen Kennedy

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Mamie Phipps Clark (born July 14, 1914 Hot Springs, Arkansas – August 11, 1983, New York City, New York) was an American developmental psychologist best known for her work on the development of African American children’s sense of self, specifically through a series of experiments conducted with her husband Kenneth Clark known as the “Doll Studies.” These studies would be instrumental in the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education court decision in which school segregation was declared unconstitutional.

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James Marcia - Identity Status, L. Nicole Hammons Apr 2025

James Marcia - Identity Status, L. Nicole Hammons

Essays in Developmental Psychology

James E. Marcia is known for his research on identity development in late adolescence, specifically his identification of four identity statuses.  He was born on February 10, 1937 in Cleveland Ohio.  He was an only child and describes his family as to a stable, lower middle- to middle-class family.  Spending his childhood in Columbus, Ohio, Marcia enjoyed tennis, drama, speech, and music (he played both piano and trombone).  After exploring history, English, and philosophy, Marcia earned his undergraduate degree in psychology from Wittenberg University in Springfield, Ohio.  He also received master’s and doctoral degrees from Ohio State University, both in …

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Ethnic Identity Formation (In A Changing World), Kerrie S. Devries, Jonathan B. Santo Apr 2025

Ethnic Identity Formation (In A Changing World), Kerrie S. Devries, Jonathan B. Santo

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Ethnic identity is a multidimensional construct with varied and changing definitions. Psychologist Jean Phinney (2000, 2003) broadly defines ethnic identity as “an enduring, fundamental aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes and feelings associated with that group membership.”  Typically, members of ethnic groups will share a similar culture, religion, language, race, values, or place of origin.  As individuals become aware of their ethnicity in the context of their surroundings, ethnic identity develops and changes over time.  Ethnic identity has been shown to impact a broad range of an individual’s feelings, …

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Midlife Stress, Kimberly Diah, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Midlife Stress, Kimberly Diah, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Midlife stress occurs naturally through the aging process but can be the result of an external psychological stressor due to loss or change such as occupational stress, health concerns, parental bereavement and divorce. Coping with the psychological suffering associated with these stressors brings challenges throughout all stages of life, but when it occurs during midlife it can be complicated by heightened or unique feelings of bewilderment. For men, recognition of their own mortality and sense of purpose in life can drive the experience of midlife stress. For women, this experience may be derived from feelings of emptiness and sadness, physical …

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Information Processing Theory (R.J. Lachman), Kimberly Diah, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Information Processing Theory (R.J. Lachman), Kimberly Diah, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Information Processing Theory is a cognitive approach designed to understand human learning. Several perspectives of this theory emerged from the cognitive revolution in psychology beginning in the 1950s. The invention of the technological age of computers brought with it an innovative way of understanding how information is processed in humans. This lead researcher to draw analogies between the processing ability of humans and computers. The human-computer analogy developed from the foundation that as computers are able to process information so too can humans in a very similar method. Both encompasses ‘cognitive’ processes such as learning or obtaining information, solving problems, …

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Mathematical Skills, Rhonda Douglas Brown Apr 2025

Mathematical Skills, Rhonda Douglas Brown

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Mathematical Skills are essential for understanding how the world works and for solving problems that are important to human survival and prosperity.  They are used in everyday living in societies across the world.  The most basic mathematical skills involve estimating the amount of small sets of items without using symbols, called number sense, and tracking a small number of individual objects through space and time, called parallel individuation.  These skills are thought to be present at birth or early in life and to increase in precision into adulthood.

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David F. Bjorklund, Rhonda Douglas Brown Apr 2025

David F. Bjorklund, Rhonda Douglas Brown

Essays in Developmental Psychology

David F. Bjorklund is an eminent scholar in the field of developmental psychology.  He was born on June 13, 1949 in Worcester, Massachusetts.  He received his bachelor’s degree cum laude in psychology from the University of Massachusetts, Amherst in 1971.  His graduate degrees include a master’s in psychology from the University of Dayton in 1973 and a doctorate in developmental psychology from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1976, as well as a Distinguished Alumnus Award in 2002.  He received an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Bern, Switzerland in 2015.  Bjorklund is currently a Professor of …

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Lifespan Perspective, Leila Eikevik Apr 2025

Lifespan Perspective, Leila Eikevik

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Psychologists who study human development have adopted the lifespan perspective, which maintains that important changes occur during every period of development and that these changes must be interpreted in terms of the culture and context in which they occur (Boyd and Bee, 2009). Prior to this understanding, the subject of development was limited to childhood. This view has shifted because it is evident adults continue to experience major life changes and there has been a significant increase in age expectancy. Therefore, all stages of life are equally important. Lifespan development begins at the time of conception and continues up until …

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Marriage, Kim Fitzgibbon Apr 2025

Marriage, Kim Fitzgibbon

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Official legislation on the touted “fundamental right” of marriage dates back to the 1800s in the United States, showing the prominence and important that the concept of marriage has on society. Changes in laws and policy have increased the opportunity for marriage to a larger population and as such, research on the construct, its benefits, challenges and statistics has become an area of significant interest. The legal and financial implications of a marriage contract have also encouraged researchers due to the serious and long-lasting implications such a contract can have. Reasons to marry are endless, are highly individualized and can …

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Naïve Theories, Ethan Fleuchaus, Heidi Kloos Apr 2025

Naïve Theories, Ethan Fleuchaus, Heidi Kloos

Essays in Developmental Psychology

While the idea of the mind as a blank slate has long been abandoned, the question of what exactly a “non-blank slate” might look like is still debated. In this entry we discuss the claim that children are equipped with naïve theories—primitive, incomplete, or otherwise ill-formed, but nevertheless systematic, mental representations of cause-effect relations. Other terms that reflect this idea include ‘misconceptions’, ‘naïve beliefs’, ‘prior theories’, ‘alternative conceptions’, or ‘intuitive theories’. Their main characteristic is that they interfere with an open-minded exploration of the surrounding. The unfortunate result of such biased exploration is that children ignore evidence that conflicts with …

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Heinz Werner, Ethan Fleuchaus, Katie Cunningham, Heidi Kloos Apr 2025

Heinz Werner, Ethan Fleuchaus, Katie Cunningham, Heidi Kloos

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Heinz Werner (February 11, 1890 – May 14, 1964) was an Austrian psychologist who played an active role in defining the field of developmental psychology at the start of the 20th century. While initially seeking to become a composer and music historian, he changed his mind after listening to a lecture on Immanuel Kant at the University of Vienna. Werner became engrossed in topics of philosophy and psychology (which were combined at the time), and he wrote his dissertation on the psychology of aesthetic experiences. Subsequently he worked at the University of Hamburg, where he published the first edition of …

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Patriarchal Violence, Fallon Flowers, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Patriarchal Violence, Fallon Flowers, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Patriarchal violence has been described as a pattern of behavior by men perpetuated against women in order to maintain control over women and their behavior. Ultimately, it is meant to oppress them; resulting in women being relegated to a lower position in society. The need for men to exert control over women via Patriarchal violence has roots in one’s cultural, societal, and moral beliefs. Such beliefs pertain to what is considered appropriate and what is considered inappropriate in a cultural context.  One of the burgeoning examples of this form of violence against women is the “honor killing”, the killing of …

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Anxiety In Old Age, Kim Fitzgibbon, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Anxiety In Old Age, Kim Fitzgibbon, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Andrew N. Meltzoff was born on February 9, 1950 in the United States.  He studied psychology at Harvard University and did graduate work at the University of Oxford, in England, with Jerome Bruner, earning his doctorate there in 1976.  Meltzoff began his professional career at the University of Washington in 1977, serving as a Professor of Psychology since 1988. He is currently co-director of the University of Washington Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences, an interdisciplinary research center.

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Adolescent Death, Kim Fitzgibbon, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Adolescent Death, Kim Fitzgibbon, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

According to recent statistics from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), there are approximately 9,500 adolescent deaths per year in the United States, as defined by mortality rates for individuals aged 15-19. CDC statistics also show that the leading causes of death for American adolescents were unintentional accidents and injuries, suicide and homicide. Furthermore, according to David Balk’s Handbook of Adolescent Death and Bereavement, gender and racial differences contribute to disproportionate mortality rates, with African American and Hispanic males finding themselves significantly more likely to be killed by homicide than Caucasian counterparts.

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Secondary Mental Abilities, Kim Fitzgibbon, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Secondary Mental Abilities, Kim Fitzgibbon, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Mental abilities have commonly been broken down into two main categories; primary and secondary. Primary mental abilities are thought to be large scale groups with similar abilities. Secondary mental ability builds off foundational primary mental abilities of intelligence. Research has suggested that there are six main secondary mental abilities, with the potential for additional abilities to be named or discovered as more research emerges. Expanding research on these abilities has also suggested that they can morph and evolve with age, just as primary abilities related to intelligence.

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Brain Study Techniques, Rhonda Douglas Brown Apr 2025

Brain Study Techniques, Rhonda Douglas Brown

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Brain study techniques are used to understand how the brain processes information and manages behavior.  They can establish which parts of the brain are responsible for different types of cognition and behavior.  One technique, called lesion studies, involves conducting case studies of patients with brain injury and associating damage in specific regions or structures with loss or impairment of specific cognitive processes and behaviors.  For example, in the mid1800s, using post-mortem autopsy, Paul Broca observed that patients who had lost the ability to speak, but could understand language, had damage in the posterior sections of the inferior frontal gyrus; whereas, …

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Marriage In Old Age, Nicole M. Fornalski, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Marriage In Old Age, Nicole M. Fornalski, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

As closely interactive cohorts throughout their adult lives, husbands and wives have been seen to become even closer confidants and partners in older age.  These changes may predominate after retirement and the loss of daily work practices and professional systems.  Older couples have frequently shared a considerable quantity of time with one another, and subsequently are able to call forth collective memories and years of intercommunications.  In addition, older adult couples usually report less conflicts, and appear to acquire more meaning out of their spousal relationships.  They also report less psychological distress and rates of illness than older singles.  These …

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Role Transitions, Nicole M. Fornalski, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Role Transitions, Nicole M. Fornalski, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

A role can be defined as one’s position in a relationship or social structure, whereas a role identity consists of the behavioral expectations that are included in that role. While some individuals may view their roles through a fixed set of social standards, others rely on their own subjective perceptions and interpretations of these positions through flexible guidelines.  Through the process of a role transition, the literature identifies two types defined as a macro role transition or micro role transition.  A macro role transition consists of a psychological or physical change between consecutively held roles.  Examples can include career transitions, …

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Sexually Transmitted Diseases, Fallon Flowers, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Sexually Transmitted Diseases, Fallon Flowers, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) are diseases that can be passed from one person to another via sexual contact. Some STDs can be treated and cured, while others, once contracted, remain for a lifetime. Chlamydia is one of the more common STDs that both women and men are susceptible to. It is the result of exposure to a bacteria called Chlamydia Trachomatis. In women, the infection can occur in the cervix, throat, or rectum, while men who are infected experience the infection inside the penis (urethra), throat, and rectum. With regard to transmission, Chlamydia can be transmitted from one person to …

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Preoperational Period, Huda Abu-Suwa, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Preoperational Period, Huda Abu-Suwa, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

The preoperational period is part of Jean Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development (Lally & Valentine-French, 2019). Piaget was a cognitive psychology, who in 1936 created a model to explain how children understand the world and develop cognitively. While other contemporary theorists believed that intelligence was a fixed trait, Piaget believed that cognitive development was a process that occurred in distinct stages, and that maturation brings about changes and growth in development, rather than training (Lally & Valentine-French, 2019). Piaget posited that each stage occurred at a specific time and in a specific sequential order, such every child goes through …

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Embryonic Stem Cell Research, Huda Abu-Suwa, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden Apr 2025

Embryonic Stem Cell Research, Huda Abu-Suwa, Lisa K. Lashley, Charles J. Golden

Essays in Developmental Psychology

Stem cell research is a controversial issue that has received considerable attention over the last three decades. Stem cell research began in the early 1980’s, when stem cells were obtained from mice embryos and utilized to understand the functioning of stem cells (Grivennikov, 2008). In 1998, researchers discovered techniques for obtaining embryonic stem cells from human and growing them in laboratories. Since them, substantial research has been conducted on stem cells and their potential uses, which includes increasing our understanding of diseases and how they occur, treating various diseases, and testing new medications for safety and efficacy (Taylor, 2005).

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