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2012

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Articles 211 - 240 of 1947

Full-Text Articles in Computer Sciences

Radar Signal Delay In The Dvali-Gabadadze-Porrati Gravity In The Vicinity Of The Sun, Ioannis Haranas, Omiros Ragos, Ioannis Gkigkitzis Nov 2012

Radar Signal Delay In The Dvali-Gabadadze-Porrati Gravity In The Vicinity Of The Sun, Ioannis Haranas, Omiros Ragos, Ioannis Gkigkitzis

Physics and Computer Science Faculty Publications

In this paper we examine the recently introduced Dvali-Gabadadze-Porrati (DGP) gravity model. We use the space time metric in which the local gravitation source dominates the metric over the contributions from the cosmological flow. Anticipating ideal possible solar system effects we derive expressions for the signal time delays in the vicinity of the sun, and for various angles of the signal approach. We use the corresponding numerical value for the parameter r0 to be equal to 5 Mpc, and from that we calculate that the time contribution due to DGP correction to the metric is proportional to b3/2 …

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How I Would Like Semantic Web To Be, For My Children., Raghava Mutharaju Nov 2012

How I Would Like Semantic Web To Be, For My Children., Raghava Mutharaju

Kno.e.sis Publications

Semantic Web, since its inception, has gone through lot of developments in its relatively nascent existence; right from people's perception, to the standards and to its adoption by the industry and more importantly by the scientific community. This impressive growth only seems to increase. In this paper, we project this growth to the next 10 years and highlight some of the facets on which Semantic Web could have a major impact on. We also present the challenges that Semantic Web and its community has to deal with in order to get there.

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Zadeh's Vision Of Going From Fuzzy To Computing With Words: From The Idea's Origin To Current Successes To Remaining Challenges, Vladik Kreinovich Nov 2012

Zadeh's Vision Of Going From Fuzzy To Computing With Words: From The Idea's Origin To Current Successes To Remaining Challenges, Vladik Kreinovich

Departmental Technical Reports (CS)

No abstract provided.

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Thirty-Two Sample Audio Search Tasks, Nigel G. Ward, Steven D. Werner Nov 2012

Thirty-Two Sample Audio Search Tasks, Nigel G. Ward, Steven D. Werner

Departmental Technical Reports (CS)

Searching in audio archives is potentially very useful, and good evaluations can guide development to realize that promise. However most current evaluation programs are technology-centric, rather than user-oriented and task-centric. This paper examines current and potential audio search needs and scenarios, and presents a sample set of thirty-two diverse audio search tasks to support more realistic evaluations.

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An Efficient Bit Vector Approach To Semantics-Based Machine Perception In Resource-Constrained Devices, Cory Andrew Henson, Krishnaprasad Thirunarayan, Amit P. Sheth Nov 2012

An Efficient Bit Vector Approach To Semantics-Based Machine Perception In Resource-Constrained Devices, Cory Andrew Henson, Krishnaprasad Thirunarayan, Amit P. Sheth

Kno.e.sis Publications

The primary challenge of machine perception is to define efficient computational methods to derive high-level knowledge from low-level sensor observation data. Emerging solutions are using ontologies for expressive representation of concepts in the domain of sensing and perception, which enable advanced integration and interpretation of heterogeneous sensor data. The computational complexity of OWL, however, seriously limits its applicability and use within resource-constrained environments, such as mobile devices. To overcome this issue, we employ OWL to formally define the inference tasks needed for machine perception – explanation and discrimination – and then provide efficient algorithms for these tasks, using bit-vector encodings …

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Smu Launches Livelabs To Enhance Singapore’S Capability In Consumer & Social Analytics, Singapore Management University Nov 2012

Smu Launches Livelabs To Enhance Singapore’S Capability In Consumer & Social Analytics, Singapore Management University

SMU Press Releases and News

Officiated by Mr Teo Chee Hean, Deputy Prime Minister, Coordinating Minister for National Security, Minister for Home Affairs and Chairman of the National Research Foundation (NRF), and witnessed by over 300 guests comprising the academia, industry partners and senior representatives from private and public sector organisations, SMU and StarHub jointly launched two Interactive Digital Media (IDM) initiatives - LiveLabs Urban Lifestyle Innovation Platform (LiveLabs) and SmartHub, on 5 November 2012. Both city-scale test-beds aim to strengthen Singapore’s standing as a preferred location for innovation and research, particularly in the area of consumer and social analytics. LiveLabs is SMU’s newest research …

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Ubiquity Of Data And Model Fusion: From Geophysics And Environmental Sciences To Estimating Individual Risk During An Epidemic, Omar Ochoa, Aline Jaimes, Christian Servin, Craig Tweedie, Aaron Velasco, Martine Ceberio, Vladik Kreinovich Nov 2012

Ubiquity Of Data And Model Fusion: From Geophysics And Environmental Sciences To Estimating Individual Risk During An Epidemic, Omar Ochoa, Aline Jaimes, Christian Servin, Craig Tweedie, Aaron Velasco, Martine Ceberio, Vladik Kreinovich

Departmental Technical Reports (CS)

In many practical situations, we need to combine the results of measuring a local value of a certain quantity with results of measuring average values of this same quantity. For example, in geosciences, we need to combine the seismic models (which describe density at different locations and depths) with gravity models which describe density averaged over certain regions. Similarly, in estimating the risk of an epidemic to an individual, we need to combine probabilities describe the risk to people of the corresponding age group, to people of the corresponding geographical region, etc. In this paper, we provide general techniques for …

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A System For Bidirectional Robotic Pathfinding, Tesca Fitzgerald Nov 2012

A System For Bidirectional Robotic Pathfinding, Tesca Fitzgerald

Computer Science Faculty Publications and Presentations

The accuracy of an autonomous robot's intended navigation can be impacted by environmental factors affecting the robot's movement. When sophisticated localizing sensors cannot be used, it is important for a pathfinding algorithm to provide opportunities for landmark usage during route execution, while balancing the efficiency of that path. Although current pathfinding algorithms may be applicable, they often disfavor paths that balance accuracy and efficiency needs. I propose a bidirectional pathfinding algorithm to meet the accuracy and efficiency needs of autonomous, navigating robots.

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Towards Logical Linked Data Compression, Amit Krishna, Pascal Hitzler, Guozhu Dong Nov 2012

Towards Logical Linked Data Compression, Amit Krishna, Pascal Hitzler, Guozhu Dong

Computer Science and Engineering Faculty Publications

Linked data has experienced accelerated growth in recent years. With the continuing proliferation of structured data, demand for RDF compression is becoming increasingly important. In this study, we introduce a novel lossless compression technique for RDF datasets, called Rule Based compression (RB compression) that compresses datasets by generating a set of new logical rules from the dataset and removing triples that can be inferred from these rules. We employ existing frequent pattern mining algorithms for generating new logical rules. Unlike other compression techniques, our approach not only takes advantage of syntactic verbosity and data redundancy but also utilizes intra- and …

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Qos Në Infrastrukturën E Kgjk-Së, Gëzim Kurshumliu Nov 2012

Qos Në Infrastrukturën E Kgjk-Së, Gëzim Kurshumliu

Theses and Dissertations

Cilësia e shërbimeve të ofruara nga një rrjete varet nga shumë faktorë. Megjithëse prodhuesit e pajisjeve të TI-së vazhdimisht ofrojnë zgjidhje të ndryshme për të rritur cilësinë e ofrimit të shërbimeve përmes TI-së. Është e pamundshme që me hovin që ka teknologjia informative ditëve të sotme, një organizatë të furnizohet në vazhdimësi me çdo pajisje të re që ofrojnë prodhuesit e tyre. Ajo që është në fokus edhe në këtë punim është pikërisht adresimi i mundësive që ofrojnë prodhuesit e njohur botërorë të TI-së për trajtimin e informatave që rrjedhin në rrjetë, gjithnjë duke i bërë ato të sillen në …

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Iptv Implementation In Kosovo Infrastructure, Burim Krasniqi Nov 2012

Iptv Implementation In Kosovo Infrastructure, Burim Krasniqi

Theses and Dissertations

Process of Routing information is one of the essential processes ranging from smaller networks communication. With the growth and development of computer networks in the size and complexity also the issue of IPTV as a network configuration which enables transport of voice and data through DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) technology to the customer premises, today is largely deployed. These services now days are provided also in Kosovo’s network through xDSL technologies, supported by IP/Ethernet optical core network and IP based switching/routing infrastructure. The readiness of already implemented NGN platform in Kosovo’s telecommunication network and steps, which should be taken related …

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Iexplore: Interactive Browsing And Exploring Biomedical Knowledge, Vinh Nguyen, Olivier Bodenreider, Jagannathan Srinivasan, Todd Minning, Thomas Rindflesch, Bastien Rance, Ramakanth Kavuluru, Himi Yalamanchili, Krishnaprasad Thirunarayan, Satya S. Sahoo, Amit P. Sheth Nov 2012

Iexplore: Interactive Browsing And Exploring Biomedical Knowledge, Vinh Nguyen, Olivier Bodenreider, Jagannathan Srinivasan, Todd Minning, Thomas Rindflesch, Bastien Rance, Ramakanth Kavuluru, Himi Yalamanchili, Krishnaprasad Thirunarayan, Satya S. Sahoo, Amit P. Sheth

Kno.e.sis Publications

We present iExplore, a Semantic Web based application that helps biomedical researchers study and explore biomedical knowledge interactively. iExplore uses the Biomedical Knowledge Repository (BKR), which integrates knowledge from various sources ranging from information extracted from biomedical literature (from PubMed) to many structured vocabularies in the Unified Medical Language System (UMLS). The current version of BKR provides a unified provenance representation for 12 million semantic predications (triples with a predicate connecting a subject and an object) derived from 87 vocabulary families in the UMLS and 14 million predications extracted from 21 million PubMed abstracts. To engage the domain experts in …

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Snap-And-Ask: Answering Multimodal Question By Naming Visual Instance, Wei Zhang, Lei Pang, Chong-Wah Ngo Nov 2012

Snap-And-Ask: Answering Multimodal Question By Naming Visual Instance, Wei Zhang, Lei Pang, Chong-Wah Ngo

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

In real-life, it is easier to provide a visual cue when asking a question about a possibly unfamiliar topic, for example, asking the question, “Where was this crop circle found?”. Providing an image of the instance is far more convenient than texting a verbose description of the visual properties, especially when the name of the query instance is not known. Nevertheless, having to identify the visual instance before processing the question and eventually returning the answer makes multimodal question-answering technically challenging. This paper addresses the problem of visual-totext naming through the paradigm of answering-by-search in a two-stage computational framework, which …

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Community As A Connector: Associating Faces With Celebrity Names In Web Videos, Zhineng Chen, Chong-Wah Ngo, Juan Cao, Wei Zhang Nov 2012

Community As A Connector: Associating Faces With Celebrity Names In Web Videos, Zhineng Chen, Chong-Wah Ngo, Juan Cao, Wei Zhang

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Associating celebrity faces appearing in videos with their names is of increasingly importance with the popularity of both celebrity videos and related queries. However, the problem is not yet seriously studied in Web video domain. This paper proposes a Community connected Celebrity Name-Face Association approach (CCNFA), where the community is regarded as an intermediate connector to facilitate the association. Specifically, with the names and faces extracted from Web videos, C-CNFA decomposes the association task into a three-step framework: community discovering, community matching and celebrity face tagging. To achieve the goal of efficient name-face association under this umbrella, algorithms such as …

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A Generalized Cluster Centroid Based Classifier For Text Categorization, Guansong Pang, Shengyi Jiang Nov 2012

A Generalized Cluster Centroid Based Classifier For Text Categorization, Guansong Pang, Shengyi Jiang

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

In this paper, a Generalized Cluster Centroid based Classifier (GCCC) and its variants for text categorization are proposed by utilizing a clustering algorithm to integrate two wellknown classifiers, i.e., the K-nearest-neighbor (KNN) classifier and the Rocchio classifier. KNN, a lazy learning method, suffers from inefficiency in online categorization while achieving remarkable effectiveness. Rocchio, which has efficient categorization performance, fails to obtain an expressive categorization model due to its inherent linear separability assumption. Our proposed method mainly focuses on two points: one point is that we use a clustering algorithm to strengthen the expressiveness of the Rocchio model; another one is …

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Information And Competitive Strategy In A Networked Economy, Robert J. Kauffman, Thomas A. Weber, D. J. Wu Nov 2012

Information And Competitive Strategy In A Networked Economy, Robert J. Kauffman, Thomas A. Weber, D. J. Wu

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

>One of the transformative changes over the past decade has been the way networks have enabled the distributed generation of value and how businesses and organizations have managed to capture a portion of this value. This has resulted in a plethora of innovative business ideas and new strategies. The present special section deals with the incentives for distributed content generation; counterintuitive network effects in the security software market, which features an intrinsic negative externality; and the possibility for collaboration between different platforms in a two-sided market. The included papers offer an interesting mix of theoretical and practical insights. All of …

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A New Data Aggregation Scheme Via Adaptive Compression For Wireless Sensor Networks, Priya Kasirajan, Carl Larsen, S. Jagannathan Nov 2012

A New Data Aggregation Scheme Via Adaptive Compression For Wireless Sensor Networks, Priya Kasirajan, Carl Larsen, S. Jagannathan

Electrical and Computer Engineering Faculty Research & Creative Works

Data aggregation is necessary for extending the network lifetime of wireless sensor nodes with limited processing and power capabilities, since energy expended in transmitting a single data bit would be at least several orders of magnitude higher when compared to that needed for a 32-bit computation. Therefore, in this article, a novel nonlinear adaptive pulse coded modulation-Based compression (NADPCMC) scheme is proposed for data aggregation in a wireless sensor network (WSN). the NADPCMC comprises of two estimators-one at the source or transmitter and the second one at the destination node. the estimator at the source node approximates the data value …

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Virtual Phd Courses – A New Mode Of Phd Education?, Bjørn Erik Munkvold, Ilze Zigurs, Deepak Khazanchi Nov 2012

Virtual Phd Courses – A New Mode Of Phd Education?, Bjørn Erik Munkvold, Ilze Zigurs, Deepak Khazanchi

Information Systems and Quantitative Analysis Faculty Proceedings & Presentations

This paper presents experiences from a joint virtual PhD course for doctoral students at a Norwegian and a US university. Based on an experiential learning approach, the course focused on practices for virtual research collaboration. Through six synchronous online sessions, interspersed with interaction in sub-teams, the participants worked on developing a joint conference publication. This gave the PhD students first-hand experience with working in a virtual research team. Based on our analysis of the experiences from the course, we discuss challenges of the virtual course setting and present guidelines for the design and conduct of similar virtual courses. Our results …

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G-Cimp Status Prediction Of Glioblastoma Samples Using Mrna Expression Data, Mehmet Baysan, Serdar Bozdag, Margaret C. Cam, Svetlana Kotliarova, Susie Ahn, Jennifer Walling, Jonathan K. Killian, Holly Stevenson, Paul Meltzer, Howard A. Fine Nov 2012

G-Cimp Status Prediction Of Glioblastoma Samples Using Mrna Expression Data, Mehmet Baysan, Serdar Bozdag, Margaret C. Cam, Svetlana Kotliarova, Susie Ahn, Jennifer Walling, Jonathan K. Killian, Holly Stevenson, Paul Meltzer, Howard A. Fine

Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science Faculty Research and Publications

Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) is a tumor with high mortality and no known cure. The dramatic molecular and clinical heterogeneity seen in this tumor has led to attempts to define genetically similar subgroups of GBM with the hope of developing tumor specific therapies targeted to the unique biology within each of these subgroups. Recently, a subset of relatively favorable prognosis GBMs has been identified. These glioma CpG island methylator phenotype, or G-CIMP tumors, have distinct genomic copy number aberrations, DNA methylation patterns, and (mRNA) expression profiles compared to other GBMs. While the standard method for identifying G-CIMP tumors is based on …

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Temporal Data Mining Of Uncertain Water Reservoir Data, Abhinaya Mohan, Peter Revesz Nov 2012

Temporal Data Mining Of Uncertain Water Reservoir Data, Abhinaya Mohan, Peter Revesz

School of Computing: Conference and Workshop Papers

This paper describes the challenges of data mining uncertain water reservoir data based on past human operations in order to learn from them reservoir policies that can be automated for the future operation of the water reservoirs. Records of human operations of water reservoirs often contain uncertain data. For example, the recorded amounts of water released and retained in the water reservoirs are typically uncertain, i.e., they are bounded by some minimum and maximum values. Moreover, the time of release is also uncertain, i.e., typically only monthly or weekly amounts are recorded. To increase the effectiveness of data mining of …

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Automatic Generation Of Provably Correct Embedded Systems, Shang-Wei Lin, Yang Liu, Pao-Ann Hsiung, Jun Sun, Jin Song Dong Nov 2012

Automatic Generation Of Provably Correct Embedded Systems, Shang-Wei Lin, Yang Liu, Pao-Ann Hsiung, Jun Sun, Jin Song Dong

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

With the demand for new and complicated features, embedded systems are becoming more and more difficult to design and verify. Even if the design of a system is verified, how to guarantee the consistency between the design and its implementation remains a big issue. As a solution, we propose a framework that can help a system designer to model his or her embedded system using a high-level modeling language, verify the design of the system, and automatically generate executable software codes whose behavior semantics are consistent with that of the high-level model. We use two case studies to demonstrate the …

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Microblog Search And Filtering With Time Sensitive Feedback And Thresholding Based On Bm25, Wei Gao, Zhongyu Wei, Kam-Fai Wong Nov 2012

Microblog Search And Filtering With Time Sensitive Feedback And Thresholding Based On Bm25, Wei Gao, Zhongyu Wei, Kam-Fai Wong

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Microblogs such as Twitter are considered faster first-hand sources of information with many real-time fashions. We report our work in the real-time adhoc search and filtering tasks of TREC 2012 microblog track. Our system is built based on the traditional BM25 relevance model, in which specific techniques are tried out to respond to the ne.ed of frnding relevant tweets, ln thc real-time adhoc task, we applied a peak detection algorithm for the process of blind feedback, We also tried to automatically combine the search results of multiple retrieval techniques. In the real-time filtering pilot task, we examine the effectiveness of …

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(Strong) Multidesignated Verifiers Signatures Secure Against Rogue Key Attack, Yunmei Zhang, Man Ho Au, Guomin Yang, Willy Susilo Nov 2012

(Strong) Multidesignated Verifiers Signatures Secure Against Rogue Key Attack, Yunmei Zhang, Man Ho Au, Guomin Yang, Willy Susilo

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Designated verifier signatures (DVS) allow a signer to create a signature whose validity can only be verified by a specific entity chosen by the signer. In addition, the chosen entity, known as the designated verifier, cannot convince any body that the signature is created by the signer. Multi-designated verifiers signatures (MDVS) are a natural extension of DVS in which the signer can choose multiple designated verifiers. DVS and MDVS are useful primitives in electronic voting and contract signing. In this paper, we investigate various aspects of MDVS and make two contributions. Firstly, we revisit the notion of unforgeability under rogue …

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Video Hyperlinking: Libraries And Tools For Threading And Visualizing Large Video Collection, Lei Pang, Wei Zhang, Hung-Khoon Tan, Chong-Wah Ngo Nov 2012

Video Hyperlinking: Libraries And Tools For Threading And Visualizing Large Video Collection, Lei Pang, Wei Zhang, Hung-Khoon Tan, Chong-Wah Ngo

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

While HTML documents could be effortlessly hyperlinked by markup tags, creation of the hyperlinks for multimedia objects is by no means easy due to the involvement of various visual processing units and intensive computational overhead. This paper introduces an open source, named VIREO-VH, which provides end-to-end support for creating hyperlinks to thread and visualize collections of videos. The software components include video pre-processing, bag-ofwords based inverted file indexing for scalable near-duplicate keyframe search, localization of partial near-duplicate segments, and galaxy visualization of video collection. The open source has been internally used by VIREO research team since 2007, and was evolved …

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Privacy In Mobile Technology For Personal Healthcare, Sasikanth Avancha, Amit Baxi, David Kotz Nov 2012

Privacy In Mobile Technology For Personal Healthcare, Sasikanth Avancha, Amit Baxi, David Kotz

Dartmouth Scholarship

Information technology can improve the quality, efficiency, and cost of healthcare. In this survey, we examine the privacy requirements of \emphmobile\/ computing technologies that have the potential to transform healthcare. Such \emphmHealth\/ technology enables physicians to remotely monitor patients' health, and enables individuals to manage their own health more easily. Despite these advantages, privacy is essential for any personal monitoring technology. Through an extensive survey of the literature, we develop a conceptual privacy framework for mHealth, itemize the privacy properties needed in mHealth systems, and discuss the technologies that could support privacy-sensitive mHealth systems. We end with a list of …

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My Materials Supporting The Exploring Computer Science Curriculum, Ronald I. Greenberg Nov 2012

My Materials Supporting The Exploring Computer Science Curriculum, Ronald I. Greenberg

Computer Science: Faculty Publications and Other Works

Ready-made handouts and other resources supporting the Exploring Computer Science (introductory high school) curriculum are provided for Units 1 through 3. These materials were based on version 4 of the ECS curriculum but should remain relevant in later versions as well.

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Cross-View Graph Embedding, Zhiwu Huang, S. Shan, H. Zhang, S. Lao, X. Chen Nov 2012

Cross-View Graph Embedding, Zhiwu Huang, S. Shan, H. Zhang, S. Lao, X. Chen

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Recently, more and more approaches are emerging to solve the cross-view matching problem where reference samples and query samples are from different views. In this paper, inspired by Graph Embedding, we propose a unified framework for these cross-view methods called Cross-view Graph Embedding. The proposed framework can not only reformulate most traditional cross-view methods (e.g., CCA, PLS and CDFE), but also extend the typical single-view algorithms (e.g., PCA, LDA and LPP) to cross-view editions. Furthermore, our general framework also facilitates the development of new cross-view methods. In this paper, we present a new algorithm named Cross-view Local Discriminant Analysis (CLODA) …

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Predicting Domain Adaptivity: Redo Or Recycle?, Ting Yao, Chong-Wah Ngo, Shiai Zhu Nov 2012

Predicting Domain Adaptivity: Redo Or Recycle?, Ting Yao, Chong-Wah Ngo, Shiai Zhu

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

Over the years, the academic researchers have contributed various visual concept classifiers. Nevertheless, given a new dataset, most researchers still prefer to develop large number of classifiers from scratch despite expensive labeling efforts and limited computing resources. A valid question is why not multimedia community “embrace the green” and recycle off-the-shelf classifiers for new dataset. The difficulty originates from the domain gap that there are many different factors that govern the development of a classifier and eventually drive its performance to emphasize certain aspects of dataset. Reapplying a classifier to an unseen dataset may end up GIGO (garbage in, garbage …

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An Improved Authentication Scheme For H.264/Svc And Its Performance Evaluation Over Non-Stationary Wireless Mobile Networks, Yifan Zhao, Swee-Won Lo, Robert H. Deng, Xuhua Ding Nov 2012

An Improved Authentication Scheme For H.264/Svc And Its Performance Evaluation Over Non-Stationary Wireless Mobile Networks, Yifan Zhao, Swee-Won Lo, Robert H. Deng, Xuhua Ding

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

In this paper, a bit stream-based authentication scheme for H.264/Scalable Video Coding (SVC) is proposed. The proposed scheme seamlessly integrates cryptographic algorithms and erasure correction codes (ECCs) to SVC video streams such that the authenticated streams are format compliant with the SVC specifications and preserve the three dimensional scalability (i. e., spatial, quality and temporal) of the original streams. We implement our scheme on a smart phone and study its performance over a realistic bursty packet-lossy wireless mobile network. Our analysis and experimental results show that the scheme achieves very high verification rates with lower communication overhead and much smaller …

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Science And Technology Parks As An Open Innovation Catalyst For Valorization, Arcot Desai Narasimhalu Nov 2012

Science And Technology Parks As An Open Innovation Catalyst For Valorization, Arcot Desai Narasimhalu

Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems

This paper sets out by reviewing the key elements of a Science or Technology Park in the context of open innovation. This is followed by a broad scan of Science and Technology Park activity in South and South East Asia. The paper proceeds to discuss Singapore’s continuous efforts to create new Science and Technology park models and presents a new approach the Singapore Management University has pursued for catalyzing valorization. Insights into and recommendations on key issues related to intellectual property, licensing and venture capital that would be of interest to any Science Park are presented later.

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