Physical Sciences and Mathematics Commons^™

Sedimentary Dynamics In Tubular Sandstone Caves, Porto União, Southern Brazil, Leandro Bianchini, Julio Cesar Paisani

International Journal of Speleology

Clastic sedimentation in sandstone caves remains poorly understood, particularly in systems with tubular morphology. This study investigates sedimentation, reworking, and sediment removal dynamics in the Legru Cave system, southern Brazil, based on the integrated analysis of sedimentary facies, microstructures, and microfeatures, combined with optically stimulated luminescence dating. The results indicate that conduit infilling is dominated by high-density flows, including cohesive debris flows, partially diluted multiphase flows, and flows with intermediate rheological behavior between mud flow and hyperconcentrated flow, in addition to shallow flow alternations. Sediment supply is predominantly allochthonous, related to hillslope-derived material delivered by overland flow and mud flows, …

Wavelet-Based Multiscale Analysis Of Cave Co₂ Concentration In Response To Short-Term High-Intensity Tourism Activities: Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity And Lag Characteristics, Mingda Cao, Wenwen Song, Yan Zhang, Jie Zhang, Zhiqiang Yao

International Journal of Speleology

High-intensity tourism activities can cause a significant increase in cave air CO₂ concentration, thereby affecting the cave micro-environment and secondary carbonate deposition. During the 2023 National Day Golden Week, high-frequency continuous monitoring of cave air CO₂ partial pressure (PCO_2(A)) and visitor numbers was conducted in Dawang Cave, Anhui Province. Wavelet transform and cross-correlation analyses were used to reveal the multi-scale response characteristics of CO₂ concentration to tourism activities. The results show that: (1) PCO_2(A) exhibited clear diurnal variations (higher during the day, lower at night) and decreased spatially with enhanced ventilation, controlled jointly by …

Riki&Dolphin: Real Time Data Transmission From The Bottom Of A Cave To A Website, Luca Tringali, Giacomo Canciani Dr., Tecla Tripari, Alexander Debenjak, Caterina Bearzotti

International Journal of Speleology

Coming from over 10 years of experience in cave monitoring in northeast Italy, Gruppo Speleologico Talpe del Carso, has designed Riki and Dolphin: customizable, low cost, and easy to assemble tools for getting real time data transmission from the bottom of a cave, even underwater, to a webserver. Their use has been tested to monitor air temperature inside the Abisso Bonetti Cave (Classical Karst, Italy), proving for the first time that a cave in Gorizian Karst can systematically be colder than the outdoor temperature even in winter, recording an internal temperature even lower than 0°C. The Dolphin device can be …

Drainage Proximity And Sinkhole Occurrence In Sivrihisar (Central Turkey): A Comparative Analysis Of Linear, Poisson, And Negative Binomial Regression Models, Bilge Bingül, Emrah Pekkan, Resul Çömert

International Journal of Speleology

This study investigates the relationship between sinkhole occurrence and distance to drainage in the Sivrihisar region (Central Turkey) and evaluates the suitability of different regression approaches for modeling clustered count data in karst terrains. A comprehensive inventory of 104 sinkholes developed within the Neogene lacustrine limestones of the Akpınar Formation was compiled using official records, remote sensing analyses, and detailed field surveys. Sinkhole occurrences were analyzed relative to a drainage network derived from a high-resolution Digital Surface Model and grouped by proximity to drainage lines. Linear Regression (LM), Poisson Regression (PR), and Negative Binomial Regression (NBR) models were comparatively applied …

Speleoco: An Open, Low-Cost Arduino Co₂ Datalogger For Cave Microclimate Monitoring, Christos Pennos, Dimitrios Christaras

International Journal of Speleology

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) dynamics in caves are critical for karst processes, speleothem growth and dissolution, microclimate regulation, and caver safety. In cave atmospheres, CO₂ commonly derives from soil respiration, epikarst degassing, microbial activity, and, in tectonically active regions, deep-seated fault-related emissions. Fault-related CO₂ degassing may also track tectonic activity. However, continuous monitoring remains limited due to the cost and inflexibility of commercial instruments. Here we present an open-source, low-cost Arduino-based CO₂ datalogger designed for cave applications. The logger integrates a COZIR NDIR CO₂ sensor, a DS1337 real-time clock, microSD storage, and power-gating for extended deployment in humid environments. Firmware and …

Response Of Botovskaya Cave To Local And Regional Environmental Dynamics, Jade Margerum, Oksana Gutareva, Franziska Lechleitner, Maria Box, Stuart Umbo, Anton Vaks, Hanno Meyer, Aleksandr Kononov, Aleksander Osintsev, Dimitri Sokol'nikov, Norbert Marwan, Ola Kwiecien, Sebastian Breitenbach

International Journal of Speleology

Speleothems from caves in near-permafrost regions can provide unique insights into the climatic history of temperature-sensitive environments. These regions are often remote and only seasonally accessible, which makes cave monitoring – a requirement for speleothem-based proxy interpretation – challenging. We document ventilation, the infiltration regime, and the isotopic composition of dripwater in Botovskaya Cave in southern Siberia, a host to speleothems previously used to reconstruct Quaternary permafrost dynamics in continental Eurasia. We explore surface and cave temperature records, cave air CO₂ concentration data and stable isotopes in precipitation and dripwater and evaluate infiltration conditions and the sensitivity of speleothems …

Numerals And Other Means Of Expressing Plurality In Language And Thought: A Developmental Perspective Across Cultures., Giovanni Giuseppe G.G. Nicosia Prof.

Numeracy

Several ancient languages use linguistic structures to differentiate between singular, dual, and plural forms that are used when one, two, or many objects are referenced. (Some languages go further, adding a trial form to differentiate two from three.) In many modern languages, numerals are used to convey precise number. After reviewing a range of ways languages express number (including the interesting case of Pirahã which does not express precise number), the paper concludes with a proposed developmental path for the expression of quantity in languages.

Ice Temperature And Heat Transfer Processes In Cave Glaciers, Aurel Persoiu

International Journal of Speleology

Cave glaciers (i.e., perennial ice accumulations in caves), found throughout mountainous regions in Europe and North America are at risk of extinction due to rising air temperature and altered rainfall patterns. Their formation and subsequent preservation is the result of accumulation of ice during winter months and limited ablation in summer. These processes, in turn, are controlled by air temperature, which determines the overall mass balance of ice. One important aspect is the heat the ice mass loses in winter, which increases its resilience during summer. While ice caves’ climate has been intensively studied in the past, investigations of ice …

Geochemistry Of Crusts In Palaeontological Deposits, Taphonomic Settings In An Upper Pleistocene Cave Site (San Teodoro, Sicily), Gerlando Vita, Luca Sineo, Francesco Armetta, Maria Luisa Saladino

International Journal of Speleology

The mineralogical and geochemical composition of cave sediments provides crucial insights into past climatic and biological dynamics. This study investigates the authigenic crusts of San Teodoro Cave (Sicily), a key Upper Pleistocene palaeontological site, through a multi-analytical approach.The cave hosts two superimposed phosphatic crusts, separated by sterile sediment, reflecting shifts in depositional and post-depositional conditions. Our analyses reveal a complex mineral assemblage consisting of calcite, aragonite, and various phosphate phases. Calcite is the dominant phase in the older crust, whereas the presence of aragonite in the younger brown crust likely indicates periods of increased aridity, potentially corresponding to conditions during …

Monitoring Strategies In Cave Microclimate Studies, Nenad Buzjak, Dalibor Paar, Aurel Persoiu, Christos Pennos, Franci Gabrovšek, Valerija Rossi

International Journal of Speleology

Cave atmospheres are spatially confined but dynamical systems that influence subterranean ecosystems, geomorphological processes, registration and preservation of climatic signals in sedimentary archives, cultural heritage, and conservation management. Despite major advances in cave climatology, methodological approaches to microclimate monitoring remain fragmented and are in some cases still shaped by the long-standing assumption that cave air temperature simply reflects the mean annual surface temperature. This paper revisits that assumption and develops an experience- and literature-based methodological framework for cave microclimate research. Key terminology is addressed by distinguishing between cave climate, cave microclimate, and cave meteorology, and by situating microclimatic variability within …

Exceptional Variety Of Baryte-Celestine-Series Speleothems In Lechuguilla Cave (New Mexico, Usa), Max Wisshak, Johannes Birkenstock, Andrea Schröder-Ritzrau, Norbert Frank, Hazel A. Barton, Harvey R. Duchene

International Journal of Speleology

An inventory of speleothems primarily composed of the closely related sulfate minerals baryte (BaSO₄) and celestine (SrSO₄) in Lechuguilla Cave (New Mexico, USA) has revealed an extraordinary variety. This includes subaerial stalactites, stalagmites, flowstone, coralloids, wall crusts, floor crystals, snow, frostwork, and subaqueous pool crystals. Large baryte and celestine crystals have also been documented in hydrothermal veins in the host rock, predating the cave and truncated when intersected by it. The respective carbonate mineral phases witherite (BaCO₃) and strontianite (SrCO₃), in contrast, were found to be rare in the studied speleothem samples, …

Pitfalls Of Multiplied 3d Landforms Projection: Mapping Deep Multilevel Cave Systems In The Alps (Gamssteig Cave System, Göll Massif), Mateusz Golicz, Jacek Szczygieł

International Journal of Speleology

Cave mapping represents one of the most complex challenges in geomorphological cartography, as it must convey the true three-dimensional geometry of subterranean spaces such as overlapping passages, irregular cross-sections, and variable ceiling and floor morphologies, within a two-dimensional framework. This study examines the methodological and interpretive challenges of cave mapping, utilizing the Gamssteighöhle cave in the Austrian Alps as a case study. During the 11 years of exploration, over 10 km of passages were surveyed using the DistoX vector survey method. Yet, the complex morphological forms necessitated deviations from the standard symbology recommended by the International Union of Speleology. Several …

Correlation Analysis Of Factors Associated With Students’ Numeracy Skills Using Decision Tree Algorithms, Yenita Roza, Arisman Adnan, Zul Indra, Tuti Alawiyah

Numeracy

Numeracy is a critical competency for academic and everyday functioning. This study investigates the key factors associated with students’ numeracy skills by employing decision tree algorithms as a data mining technique. The dataset used in this study is educational assessment data from Indonesia. Utilizing a dataset comprising 6,953 entries and 60 variables from Education Report, the research adopts an exploratory approach involving data preprocessing, exploratory data analysis, and decision tree model construction. The findings reveal that students’ literacy skills serve as the most dominant predictor of numeracy proficiency, emerging as the root node in the decision tree structure. Additional associated …

Assessing The Impact Of Visitors On Airborne Particle Deposition In The Giant Gypsum Geode Of Pulpí (Se Spain), Ana Camila Mendoza, Ángel Fernández-Cortés, Fernando Gázquez, Jesús Morilla, Milagros Carretero, Jose Maria Calaforra, David Benavente

International Journal of Speleology

The Giant Geode of Pulpí is a unique mineralogical phenomenon worldwide, remarkable for its large selenite gypsum crystals. Its recent development as a tourist site and inclusion on UNESCO’s Tentative World Heritage List, highlight the need to assess the impact of visits on its conservation. This study investigates airborne particle dynamics inside the Geode, focusing on tourist activity and natural ventilation. We measured deposition rates and composition of airborne particles using passive traps and a continuous laser-optical particle counter. Microenvironmental variables linked to ventilation, such as temperature and radon gas concentration (²²²Rn), were simultaneously monitored. Results show a predominance of …

Teaching Numeracy For Social Justice: Educational Equity, Esther Isabelle Wilder, Crystal C. Rodriguez, Caterina Shost, Eduardo Vianna, Frank Wang

Numeracy

The special collection, “Teaching Numeracy for Social Justice: Educational Equity,” focuses on how quantitative reasoning (QR) can function as a vehicle for equity, empowerment, and democratic participation. Building on a longstanding tradition that treats numeracy as inseparable from social justice, these contributions highlight how progressive pedagogies (e.g., active learning, authentic research, and equity-oriented assessment) have the potential to broaden access for students historically excluded from quantitative fields. The studies span a variety of conceptual frameworks, introductory and advanced quantitative instruction, and interdisciplinary applications, showcasing how inclusive QR practices can build confidence, agency, and real-world understanding. These articles demonstrate that when …

No Groundwater, No Fish: The Critical Role Of Groundwater In Supporting Non-Glacial, Salmon-Bearing Rivers In South-Central Alaska, Tyelyn Brigino, Kai Rains, Edgar Guerron-Orejuela, Jacob Argueta, Syverine Bentz, Coowe Walker, Mark Rains

School of Geosciences Faculty and Staff Publications

Groundwater discharge plays an important role in the hydrologic and ecologic functioning of rivers including sustaining streamflow and related habitat year-round. Simultaneously, groundwater supports the increasing demands of people as the global population continues to grow. Balancing the needs of users becomes increasingly important as climate change introduces greater uncertainty in water resources and fisheries, especially for economically important anadromous species that depend on freshwater resources. We investigated the seasonal and regional variability of groundwater contributions to six non-glacial mainstem salmon-bearing rivers in south-central Alaska. We hypothesized that groundwater contributes more than half of the annual streamflow, and nearly all …

Bridging Functions And Values: Advancing Wetland Ecosystem Service Assessment Through Use Of A Service Capacity Index, William J. Kleindl, Sarah P. Church, Kai C. Rains, Mark C. Rains, Eric D. Stein, Morgan K. Suddreth

School of Geosciences Faculty and Staff Publications

Wetland service or values are often assumed to occur at a comparable level to wetland function (i.e., higher functioning wetlands provide more services). However, services are seldom directly evaluated because of the lack of structured assessment approaches. For wetland ecosystem service to be effectively incorporated in regulatory and monitoring programs, there needs to be parsimonious assessment tools that can be applied systematically, repeatably, and rapidly. This approach begins by disentangling existing terminology and clearly defining all the terms necessary to support the assessment of ecosystem services (ES). We provide context to illustrate how these terms have been variously employed in …

Non-Destructive Characterization Of Variously Colored Gypsum And Aragonite/Calcite Speleothems From The Cigalère Cave (Ariège, France), Martin Vlieghe, Johan Wouters, Gérald Fanuel, Jean-François Drion Du Chapois, Anne Gallez, Stéphane Pire-Stevenne, Gaëtan Rochez, Johan Yans

International Journal of Speleology

The Cigalère Cave is a 21 km-long karstic cave located in the Ariège Department, in the French Pyrenees, and underlies directly the Bentaillou Pb-Zn-Fe sulfide ores. The cave hosts abundant gypsum mineralizations, some of them exhibiting various colorations including blue, yellow, purple, orange and black. Due to strict preservation policies, these colored mineralizations have not been studied much. Here we propose a non-destructive characterization of five distinct gypsum or carbonate speleothem structures from the Cigalère, exhibiting different colorations. To comply with the preservation policies, no sample was taken from the cave, and all speleothems were analyzed in situ using portable …

Hydrothermal Vents In Sulfuric Acid Speleogenesis Karst: Isolated Feeders With Pristine Hypogenic Water Or Interconnected Conduits With Rapid Flow And Recycled Water?, Jakub Mareš, Marek Audy, Serban M. Sarbu, Jan Kukačka, Romeo Eftimi, Jiří Bruthans

International Journal of Speleology

Underwater connectivity and flow paths in the saturated zone of hypogenic sulfuric acid speleogenesis (SAS) karst remain unclear, despite sustained research over the past 30 years. Being regarded as sources of pristine H₂S-charged water, narrow inflow conduits called "feeders" are typically considered primary sources of water and hotspots of speleogenesis. In southeastern Albania, there is a newly discovered active SAS karst system comprising numerous caves and springs. Tracer tests were conducted to investigate the connection of these caves to the surrounding springs and to characterize the flow paths. The results show that water flows from cave lakes to …

A Cave In Miocene Conglomerate: The Törökpince-Abaliget Cave System, Hungary, Krisztina Sebe, Piroska Pazonyi, Márton Bauer, Bálint Szappanos, Márton Szabó, Zoltán Szentesi, Mihály Gasparik, Ákos Juhász, Luca Pandolfi, Máté Gregorits, József Haász, Ágnes Novothny, Zsófia Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger

International Journal of Speleology

Conglomerate caves are rare, and only a few have been described in the scientific literature. Here, we present a newly discovered and significant cave system in SW Hungary, comprising over 500 m of upper passages and a shorter, lower section of a through-cave developed in Lower–Middle Miocene conglomerates. The formation of these cave passages was controlled chiefly by bedding and fractures. Dissolution has produced typical karstification morphologies, whereas corrasion, granular disintegration, and rock collapse have also played a role in shaping the cave. The cave is dominated by vadose-zone morphologies, but sediment infills indicating upward water flow, along with ceiling …

Measurements Of Water-Film Thickness On Cave Walls And Speleothems, Alexandre Honiat, Salaheddine Skali-Lami, François Bourges, Bruno Lartiges

International Journal of Speleology

The water-film that coats cave walls and speleothems is a key player for the regulation of cave microclimate and the control of speleothem growth. In this paper, we demonstrate the capability of a confocal optical sensor to quantitatively measure on-site the rapid variations of water-film thickness when dripping, active condensation, or dryness occur on walls of various caves. Results obtained from a sample of four prehistoric caves and one stalagmite cave from Southwest France, indicate that the measurable thickness of water-films is generally in the 25-70 µm range for cave walls and reaches 200-300 µm on the horizontal plane of …

A Predictive Model For Multi- Week Respiratory Risk From Red Tide On Florida’S Gulf Coast., Elmer S. Ochaeta

Computer Science and Engineering Faculty Publications

Florida’s Gulf Coast red tide (Karenia brevis) can put toxins into the air, making people cough, irritating the throat, and worsening asthma or other breathing problems especially when winds blow from the ocean toward the beach. Right now, most public updates don’t really help with the question people actually ask when planning a weekend or vacation: “Will going to or close to the beach be risky in the next few weeks?”.

In this project, I build a weekly early warning system that estimates respiratory risk for specific beaches and predicts that risk 2 to 4 weeks ahead. The study covers …

The Relationship Between Lineaments And Cave Passages In Unfaulted Gently-Folded Strata, Snail Shell Cave, Central Tennessee, Usa, Mark Abolins, Joseph Firkaly-Paciera, Blake King, Cris Ocasio-Valentin, Jackson Slighter, Teagan Sullivan, Justin Whited

International Journal of Speleology

Near Snail Shell Cave in central Tennessee, USA, seven image interpreters independently mapped lineaments using a 3DEP LiDAR DTM, revealing geomorphic and structural differences in and near different parts of the cave. MANOVA comparison of lineament and cave passage trend for Western, Central, and Eastern Snail Shell caves reveals statistically significant differences (p <0.05). The Western cave (mean depth 44 m) is in the gently-dipping limb of the Snail Shell anticline, and the Central cave (mean depth 31 m) is in the anticline hinge. In contrast, many Eastern cave passages (mean depth 40 m) cut across the anticline hinge and part of the limb of the Overall syncline. For both the Western and Central caves, a post-hoc Tukey’s HSD test fails to show that lineament trend within 235 m of the cave differs significantly from passage trend, and the test fails to show that the two differ significantly within 235 and 433 m of the Eastern cave. Additional statistical testing fails to show a difference between Western passage trend and bed strike, indicating the likelihood that lineaments and passages developed within strike-joints. However, testing shows a statistically significant difference between passage trend and bed strike for the Central and Eastern caves. The strike of joints inside the Eastern cave shows that it is within a joint zone which penetrates to depths of at least 80 m and is expressed at the surface as an ~4.2 km-long belt of elevated lineament line density. The lack of a statistically significant difference between Eastern passage trend and the trend of a nearby topographic escarpment suggests that many joints are stress release fractures formed during relatively recent erosion. For the Eastern cave, intersections between lineaments and structures would be attractive targets for groundwater exploration at depths typical of wells in carbonates.

Reducing Data Requirements In Polymer Science: Deep Neural Networks For Predicting Surface Tension Of Copolymer Compatibilizers, Md Mushfiqul Islam

USF Tampa Graduate Theses and Dissertations

In polymer chemistry, compatibilization involves adding a substance often a block or graft copolymerto stabilize polymer blends that would otherwise not mix well, leading to rough structures and weak me- chanical properties. Compatibilizers improve miscibility and reduce interfacial tension, which is critical for applications such as mixed-waste polymer recycling. Sequence-controlled polymers offer unique potential by combining the tunable chemistry of synthetic polymers with the precise, function-driven design of biological macromolecules, but unlike proteins, they lack large, evolution-shaped datasets to guide discovery. This research develops a deep learning framework to predict the surface tension of sequence-controlled copolymer compatibilizers across varying concentrations. …

New Evidence Of Mid-Pleistocene Glaciations In The French Jura Mountains Using Debris Flow Deposits And U/Th Dating Of Speleothems (Verneau Karst Network), Margot Vivier, Stéphane Jaillet, Eglantine Husson, Edwige Pons Branchu, Jean-Baptiste Charlier

International Journal of Speleology

We redefine the extent of former glaciers in the northern Jura Mountains through the study of endokarst deposits. Sedimentary deposits (pebbly debris flows, laminated clays, and allochthonous limestone blocks) and chemical deposits (speleothems) were identified and studied using three complementary approaches: (i) detailed geomorphological mapping, (ii) petrographic analysis, and (iii) U/Th-dating. In addition, a surface geomorphological analysis made it possible to calculate the minimum erosion time required for the formation of the sinkhole linked to the underground study site. The study site is the Dolois Chamber, an underground site upstream of the Verneau karst network (Doubs Department, France). The combined …

Statistical Challenges And Simulation Results For Pilot Clinical Trials, Weiliang Cen

USF Tampa Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Background: The effect size estimated from a pilot trial is often an inaccurate reflection of the true effect size observed in a large trial, leading to either underestimation or overestimation. Published data suggest that effect sizes from large trials are typically smaller than those reported in their corresponding pilot trials. To address this discrepancy, conservative or discount adjustment methods are widely recommended to modify pilot trial effect sizes when calculating sample sizes, thereby maintaining adequate statistical power. This study aims to assess effect sizes from both pilot and large trials and to evaluate the performance of existing adjustment methods.

Methods: …

Parameterizing Ion–Lipid Interactions From Local Clusters To Reproduce Experimental Bulk Properties Of Lipid Bilayers, W. Matthew Saunders

USF Tampa Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Phospholipids are the main component of cell membranes, providing a delimiting boundary for cells from their environments or from their organelles from the cytosol. Thiscompartmentalization allows cells to maintain quite different solutions within their cells and organelles, including different mixtures dissolved ions. Consequently, these membranes are constantly flanked by complex mixtures of salts at varied concentrations. To study membrane structure, one cannot neglect the contribution of the salts in the local solution. Ions perturb bilayer structure via specific interaction with the phospholipids, primarily with the headgroups. Experimental studies of these systems are somewhat at odds — scattering experiments with different …

Thermal Properties Of Novel Materials, Wilarachchige D.C. Bhagya Gunatilleke

USF Tampa Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Thermal properties play an important role in various aspects of applications of technology startingfrom the materials property determinations to device performance improvements and their safety and stability. Measurements of the thermal properties of such materials of interest pose challenges due to the demands of these measurements for determination of intrinsic materials properties. The research included in this dissertation involved both synthesis of novel materials and their measurement of thermal properties. Solid-state materials synthesis involves various synthesis and processing techniques, while specific technological applications demand synthesis of defect-free single crystals. Such synthesis techniques were explored for the research included in this …

Advancing Power System Reliability And Security With Efficient And Resilient Graph Neural Network Frameworks, Seyed Hamed Haghshenas

USF Tampa Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Enhancing the reliability and security of smart grids is critical for ensuring their seamless operation and resilience against disruptions. The increasing integration of distributed energy resources, advanced measurement devices, and cyber-physical elements introduces both opportunities and challenges for grid management. While these advancements provide enhanced visibility and operational control, they also expose the grid to vulnerabilities from cyber-physical stresses, such as cyber-attacks, equipment failures, and fluctuating power demands. Traditional methods for reliability assessment and threat detection often rely on model-based approaches that struggle to adapt to the complexity and dynamic nature of modern smart grids. These limitations necessitate novel data-driven …

Mosquito Classification And Explainability From Image Data Via Deep Learning Techniques, Farhat Binte Azam

USF Tampa Graduate Theses and Dissertations

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), mosquitoes are the deadliest animals on Earth, responsible for more human deaths annually than any other species. Mosquito-borne illnesses continue to pose severe risks to global health. In 2015 alone, there were an estimated 214 million malaria cases worldwide. Similarly, a 2016 report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) revealed that Puerto Rico’s Department of Health received over 62,500 suspected cases of Zika, with 29,345 confirmed positive cases. In 2019, Southeast Asia experienced its worst dengue outbreak in recorded history. Of the approximately 4,500 mosquito species distributed across 34 genera, …