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Articles 1861 - 1890 of 2048

Full-Text Articles in Psychiatry and Psychology

The Considerations Of A Southeastern European Airline Aircraft Engineers Regarding The Incentives Applied By The Corporate Top Management And Those Required By Them, Dr. Yannis (John) Lainos Jan 2005

The Considerations Of A Southeastern European Airline Aircraft Engineers Regarding The Incentives Applied By The Corporate Top Management And Those Required By Them, Dr. Yannis (John) Lainos

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

In October 2003 we conducted a survey among the aircraft engineers of a southeastern European airline (Airline). The research included four questionnaires with 61 questions. The subjects of these questionnaires were: a) The incentives that attracted the a/c engineers to their profession. b) The opinion of the a/c engineers on the incentives applied by the Airline’s top management c) The incentives which the a/c engineers require to be applied by corporate top management. d) The opinion of the a/c engineers regarding the effects of the recently organisational restruring of the Airline’s group The sample used for this research represented 25% …

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Effects Of Haptic Feedback In The Tele-Operation Of An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, T. Mung Lam, Maximine Delannoy, Max Mulder, M.M. (René) Van Paassen Jan 2005

Effects Of Haptic Feedback In The Tele-Operation Of An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, T. Mung Lam, Maximine Delannoy, Max Mulder, M.M. (René) Van Paassen

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

This paper will describe an experiment that investigates the influence of force feedback on collision avoidance, control behavior and workload in the tele-operation of an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Artificial force fields are used to provide force information. Subjects are asked to control a stability-augmented UAV helicopter through an obstacle-loaded environment. Visual information is provided by a display containing the simulated forward looking camera view and a navigation display, providing a top-down view. The force feedback algorithm is only implemented for the horizontal plane. Problems related to the general principle of an artificial force field that occur with autonomous robots, …

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A Non-Linear Relationship Between Controller Workload, Task Load, And Traffic Density: The Straw That Broke The Camel’S Back, Paul U. Lee, Joey Mercer, Nancy Smith, Everett Palmer Jan 2005

A Non-Linear Relationship Between Controller Workload, Task Load, And Traffic Density: The Straw That Broke The Camel’S Back, Paul U. Lee, Joey Mercer, Nancy Smith, Everett Palmer

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Controller workload, recognized as a significant bottleneck to capacity increase in the future National Airspace System, has been researched extensively in air traffic management. Unfortunately, subjective workload has been an unreliable predictor of a controller’s ability to safely manage the traffic, leading to attempts at replacing workload with more objective metrics, such as task load (e.g. number of clearances) and traffic density (e.g. aircraft count). A significant caveat to substituting these metrics for workload ratings, however, is that their relationships are nonlinear. More specifically, when the objective metrics, such as aircraft count, increase linearly, the controller’s perceived workload remains low …

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Workspace Visualization For Planning Of Air Operations, Gavan Lintern Jan 2005

Workspace Visualization For Planning Of Air Operations, Gavan Lintern

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Information overload has become a critical challenge within military operations. However, the problem is not so much one of too much information but of abundant information that is poorly organized and poorly represented. Here I describe a prototype information-action workspace, sometimes referred to as a knowledge visualization, to resolve this issue. Development proceeded through a systematic design sequence of cognitive analysis, knowledge representation and workspace design. The cognitive analysis focused on the specific information needed to support military planning and judgment. The workspace was structured in terms of dimensions of functional abstraction and functional decomposition; dimensions that are thought to …

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The Use Of Integrated Historical And Predictive Data To Support Flight Planning By Airline Dispatchers, Chang Liu, Phillip J. Smith, Charles Billings, Kapil Sheth, Shon Grabbe, Banavar Sridhar Jan 2005

The Use Of Integrated Historical And Predictive Data To Support Flight Planning By Airline Dispatchers, Chang Liu, Phillip J. Smith, Charles Billings, Kapil Sheth, Shon Grabbe, Banavar Sridhar

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Airline dispatchers play a critical role in the National Airspace System (NAS), as their flight planning decisions have a direct impact on the efficiency and safety of the resultant traffic flows and on contingency plans to deal with possible events that could arise while enroute. Their decisions also have an important impact on the operating costs for an airline. This paper first discusses the results of two focus groups with airline and military dispatchers that served to identify potential uses by dispatchers of the functionality contained in NASA’s Future ATC Concept Evaluation Tool (FACET). This tool uses trajectory modeling to …

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Analysis Methods For Determining The Safety Consequences Of Mixed-Fleet Flying, Beth Lyall Ph.D., Mike New Ph.D. Jan 2005

Analysis Methods For Determining The Safety Consequences Of Mixed-Fleet Flying, Beth Lyall Ph.D., Mike New Ph.D.

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

This paper describes the development and implementation of analysis methods for identifying human factors safety vulnerabilities associated with the mixed-fleet flying of the Boeing 767-400 and 777. The results of the analysis were two sets of vulnerabilities: those with potentially critical pilot performance consequences that should be further tested, and those with minor consequences that should be considered when developing procedures and training for the mixed-fleet flying program. A longitudinal study was conducted that included data collection to address the potentially critical vulnerabilities. Examples of how vulnerabilities were addressed with video data from the study are presented and conclusions from …

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A Framework For The Assessment Of Controller Coordination In The Air Traffic Control Tower Environment, Peter Moertl, Craig Bonaceto Jan 2005

A Framework For The Assessment Of Controller Coordination In The Air Traffic Control Tower Environment, Peter Moertl, Craig Bonaceto

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

The air traffic control tower (ATCT) environment requires coordination between various controller positions for safe and efficient operations. With the development of new collaborative decision support tools in the tower (e.g. SMS, NASA 2004), efficient human interface design will require the consideration of the coordination routines that controller use. Whereas inter-position coordination is generally prescribed by the FAA (FAAO 7110.65) as well as by specific ATCT standard operating procedures, little is known about face-to-face coordination that is not captured by other recording media such as flight strip marking or radio communication.

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Teams, Teamwork, And Automation In Air Traffic Control, Philip W. Maynard, Esa M. Rantanen Jan 2005

Teams, Teamwork, And Automation In Air Traffic Control, Philip W. Maynard, Esa M. Rantanen

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Many recent initiatives involving social psychology applications in the aviation world have redoubled the interest in the concept of teams and teamwork. The importance of teamwork in airline cockpits, hailed as cockpit (or crew-) resource management (CRM), has been recognized for a relatively long time. It is also widely agreed that extensive and effective interaction among participants in the National Airspace System (NAS), pilots, air traffic controllers, and airline operations personnel, is tantamount to the daily successes of the nation’s air transportation industry. Team aspects in air traffic control (ATC) are, however, much more convoluted than intra-cockpit teams or top-level …

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Supporting Teams In Crisis With It: A Preliminary Collaboration Framework, Earl Mckinnet Jr. Jan 2005

Supporting Teams In Crisis With It: A Preliminary Collaboration Framework, Earl Mckinnet Jr.

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

To support their teams in crisis, organizations seek to leverage advances in information technology. These advances include automation support to the warfighting team (e.g. an electronic checklist for a flight crew), as well as collaboration support such as linking engaged combat troops to intelligence services. While automated support is rapidly developing, very little consideration has been given to enhancing the collaboration support for teams that face crisis. Here we suggest a preliminary set of IT system attributes to support collaboration for teams that face crisis. These attributes are based on two frameworks that have been developed to mitigate the effects …

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Building An Interlocking Human Factors Research And Development Program, Jacqueline Rehmann, Dino Piccione, Richard Mogford Ph.D. Jan 2005

Building An Interlocking Human Factors Research And Development Program, Jacqueline Rehmann, Dino Piccione, Richard Mogford Ph.D.

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) partners with the National Astronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to manage and integrate research on enhanced air- and ground-based air traffic management technologies. This partnership, designed to integrate air traffic decision support tools, concepts, and procedures, was formalized in September 1995. Coordinated research initiatives are described in joint research project descriptions (JRPDs) that define objectives, approach, responsibilities, mission relevance, goals, and outcomes. JRPD 12 is unique in that, as a cross-cutting JRPD, it ensures relevant human factors research issues, methods, metrics, and findings of individual programs of both organizations are made known to, shared, and …

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External Aids And Age Differences In Pilot Communication, Daniel Morrow, Dervon Chang, Christopher Wickens, Esa Rantanen, Liza Raquel Jan 2005

External Aids And Age Differences In Pilot Communication, Daniel Morrow, Dervon Chang, Christopher Wickens, Esa Rantanen, Liza Raquel

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

The use of external aids (e.g., a kneepad) can reduce the demands of Air Traffic Control (ATC) communication on pilots’ working memory during routine flight. Older pilots may especially benefit from such aids because of agerelated declines in working memory, although cognitive declines may impair the ability to coordinate the use of these aids with concurrent flight navigation and control tasks. We investigated the use of two external aids that may vary in ease of coordination: a conventional knee pad and an electronic notepad, or e-pad. Participants were 6 older (50-65 years) and 6 younger (20-40) active instrument-rated pilots. While …

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The Recording Of Flight Time By Pilots, Redolf G. Mortimer Phd Jan 2005

The Recording Of Flight Time By Pilots, Redolf G. Mortimer Phd

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Flight time is an important index of the flight exposure of pilots and is used in estimating the accident rates of pilots, but we are not aware of prior attempts to determine how the underlying data are obtained. This study used two surveys of civilian U.S. pilots to learn how they measured and recorded flight time. Pilots used a timer, watch, the Hobbs meter or tachometer to measure the duration of flights. Professional pilots flying on scheduled flights used company or block time as the criterion of the duration of a flight, while 79% of private pilots used the time …

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An Evaluation Of Scanning Of Integrated Hazard Displays As A Function Of Size And Event Detection Performance, Emily K. Mathard, Christopher D. Wickens Jan 2005

An Evaluation Of Scanning Of Integrated Hazard Displays As A Function Of Size And Event Detection Performance, Emily K. Mathard, Christopher D. Wickens

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

The present study was designed to assess the influence of display enlargement on pilot scanning patterns and event detection performance. Nineteen pilots monitored an integrated hazard display for changes in the altitude or heading of traffic aircraft and weather systems. Analyses revealed that event detection accuracy and response time were unaffected by display size, suggesting pilots compensated for display enlargements by strategically widening scanning patterns. While eye movement data revealed that attention was allocated to the peripheral display regions regardless of display size, individuals who were poor at detecting events were less likely to attend to these display areas. The …

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Beyond Automation Surprises: A Simulator Study Of Disturbance Management On Highly Automated Flight Decks, Mark I. Nikolic, Nadine B. Sarter Jan 2005

Beyond Automation Surprises: A Simulator Study Of Disturbance Management On Highly Automated Flight Decks, Mark I. Nikolic, Nadine B. Sarter

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Error prevention alone will never be sufficient for improving safety in complex high-risk systems, such as aviation. This approach needs to be combined with better support for error and disturbance management which, in turn, requires an improved understanding of current strategies for coping with errors and the resulting disturbances to the flight. The present research has sought systematic empirical evidence to expand our understanding of the disturbance management process on modern flight decks. A simulator study was conducted with twelve B747-400 airline pilots in order to examine (the effectiveness of) their strategies for diagnosing and recovering from disturbances, and the …

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Operators’ Time Perception Under Stress, R. V. Nayeem, T. Oran-Gilad, P. A. Hancock Jan 2005

Operators’ Time Perception Under Stress, R. V. Nayeem, T. Oran-Gilad, P. A. Hancock

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Time perception is extremely important to the understanding, design and use of complex aviation systems. This experiment focused on differences in time estimation, flight performance, and monitoring tasks. In a betweensubjects experiment, participants navigated through a flight scenario while monitoring a switch and listening to white noise at either 55dBA or 85dBA. Flight performance data and monitoring data were collected throughout the task. Participants also completed the NASA-TLX and the DSSQ-S. Statistical analyses showed that the noise condition did not significantly affect workload, monitoring abilities, task completion and subjective stress questionnaires for the dual task. However, the 85dBA condition significantly …

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Mishap Trends In Several Air Force Aircraft: Implications For Crm Training, Robert Nullmeyer, Lt Col David Stella, Gregg Montijo Jan 2005

Mishap Trends In Several Air Force Aircraft: Implications For Crm Training, Robert Nullmeyer, Lt Col David Stella, Gregg Montijo

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Human factors trends in C-130, F-16, and A-10 mishaps were reviewed for relevance to cockpit/crew resource management (CRM) course content. The current Air Force Safety Center human factors taxonomy includes about 360 detailed human factors elements. About sixty of these taxonomy elements map directly into the six CRM core areas identified in Air Force Flying Operations publications (communication, risk management/decision making, situational awareness, task management, crew coordination/flight integrity, and mission preparation/ debriefing). This small fraction of human factors elements accounted for well over half of the causal and strongly contributing factors cited in each platform. The relative contributions of specific …

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Integrated Automation Enhances Air Traffic Controller Conflict Detection Performance Under Free Flight, Raja Parasuraman, Ulla Metzger Jan 2005

Integrated Automation Enhances Air Traffic Controller Conflict Detection Performance Under Free Flight, Raja Parasuraman, Ulla Metzger

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Previous simulation studies have shown that, without the assistance of automation, controllers have difficulty in timely detection and resolution of aircraft-to-aircraft conflicts under future air traffic management concepts such as Free Flight (Galster et al., 2001; Metzger & Parasuraman, in press). However, how automated information on potential conflicts should be displayed to the controller is not well understood. In the present study, we reasoned that automation that was integrated with the primary radar display would be effective in enhancing conflict detetction. We also manipulated display modality so that the automation provided information to the controller using simple visual, enhanced visual, …

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Competence-Based Assessment Design For Air Traffic Control Training, Esther Oprins, Ernst Burggraaff, Hans Van Weerdenburg Jan 2005

Competence-Based Assessment Design For Air Traffic Control Training, Esther Oprins, Ernst Burggraaff, Hans Van Weerdenburg

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Air Traffic Control (ATC) simulator and on-the-job training (OJT) requires a valid and reliable assessment system. Competence-based assessment results in more effective learning processes, better pass/fail decisions and improved selection criteria which may contribute to an increased output of competent controllers from training. This paper describes the design of the assessment system in use by Air Traffic Control the Netherlands (LVNL).

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The Good, The Not-So-Bad, And The Ugly: Computer-Detected Altitude, Heading, And Speed Changes, Elaine M. Pfleiderer Jan 2005

The Good, The Not-So-Bad, And The Ugly: Computer-Detected Altitude, Heading, And Speed Changes, Elaine M. Pfleiderer

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

The relationship between communication events and controller workload has been well established. Unfortunately, a substantial amount of time and effort is required to transcribe and code these events. Alternative measures might be preferable if they could be obtained more easily. Manning, Mills, Fox, Pfleiderer, and Mogilka (2002) found that, relative to a set of computer-derived measures, communication events might not add enough unique information to the prediction of subjective workload to justify the effort involved in obtaining them. At the time the study was conducted, computer-derived measures of altitude, heading, and speed changes were not available. The present investigation compares …

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Risk Factors For Fatal General Aviation Accidents In Degraded Visual Conditions, Jana M. Price, Loren S. Groff Jan 2005

Risk Factors For Fatal General Aviation Accidents In Degraded Visual Conditions, Jana M. Price, Loren S. Groff

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

The prevalence of weather-related general aviation (GA) accidents has declined over the past two decades, yet the fatality rate of these accidents remains high. The goal of this study was to examine predictors of fatality within a set of weather-related GA accidents to determine if there are particular factors that contribute to excessively high fatality rates. 3,206 weather-related GA accidents from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Aviation Accident Database were analyzed using univariate chi-squares and binary logistic regression. A variety of pilot, aircraft, flight, and accident-related factors were evaluated to determine if they increased the odds of pilot fatality. …

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A Human Factors Approach For The Analysis And The Encoding Of Aviation Accidents And Incidents: A Validation Study, Y. Pouliquen, O. Ferrante, P. Jouniaux, G. Nicolas, P. Cabon, F. Rome, M. Wolff, R. Mollard Jan 2005

A Human Factors Approach For The Analysis And The Encoding Of Aviation Accidents And Incidents: A Validation Study, Y. Pouliquen, O. Ferrante, P. Jouniaux, G. Nicolas, P. Cabon, F. Rome, M. Wolff, R. Mollard

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Sharing safety information is a key issue to improve aviation safety. Therefore, it appears necessary to have a common way to describe aviation accidents/incidents in order to get consistent data that will be used to produce relevant safety indicators. This implies to use the same taxonomy, the same compatible software to facilitate data sharing, and, more important, a common method to encode occurrences into safety data. The way human factors are taken into account in the database must be improved since statistics usually provided, deal with accident/incident categories and not with their various causes (most of them are human factors …

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In-Flight Planning And Intelligent Pilot Aids For Emergencies And Nonnominal Flight Conditions, A. R. Pritchett, V. V. Kalambi Jan 2005

In-Flight Planning And Intelligent Pilot Aids For Emergencies And Nonnominal Flight Conditions, A. R. Pritchett, V. V. Kalambi

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

A commercial flight plan comprises a series of turns and climbs or descents defined by headings or waypoints, and speed and altitude constraints at each. Situations do occur in-flight where the pilot must re-plan, inflight, the lateral and vertical profile of the remainder of the flight. For example, a ‘non-nominal’ condition such as a thunderstorm may require re-routing; less frequently, an emergency situation may require an immediate landing at the nearest airport. . The objective of this research was to see how pilots perform in-flight planning by observing the planning behavior of pilots in non nominal and emergency conditions arising …

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Simulating Glass Cockpit Displays In A General Aviation Flight Environment, Robert W. Proctor, John P. Young, Richard O. Fanjoy, Robert G. Feyen, Nathan W. Hartman, Vishal V. Hiremath Jan 2005

Simulating Glass Cockpit Displays In A General Aviation Flight Environment, Robert W. Proctor, John P. Young, Richard O. Fanjoy, Robert G. Feyen, Nathan W. Hartman, Vishal V. Hiremath

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Development of a research platform that replicates the basic flight functions of a light, general aviation aircraft is described. This involved retrofitting an actual aircraft cockpit with computer displays to emulate an aircraft environment. The hardware and software used in this research platform are described, as well as issues and problems regarding implementation and use in research.

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Effect Of Air Traffic Controller Taskload And Temporal Awareness On Task Prioritization, Esa M. Rantanen, Brian R. Levinthal Jan 2005

Effect Of Air Traffic Controller Taskload And Temporal Awareness On Task Prioritization, Esa M. Rantanen, Brian R. Levinthal

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

This paper describes an experiment that was conducted to provide an empirical foundation for estimation of parameters for air traffic controller performance modeling efforts presently pursued within the NASA DAG-TM CE-6 model development. The focus of the work was the task prioritization scheme used in these models. A total of 11 retired FAA controllers and supervisors assigned to the FAA Technical Center volunteered to participate in the experiment. A part-task experimental simulation that presented the participating controllers with several simultaneous tasks in four quadrants, or panes, on a single display was used. Only one pane and typically one task could …

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Stratigies For Contolling Checklist Reading Behavior: A Literature Review, William G. Rantz Jan 2005

Stratigies For Contolling Checklist Reading Behavior: A Literature Review, William G. Rantz

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

One of the highest frequencies of errors recorded by recent Line Oriented Safety Audits (LOSA) is within the category of intentional non-compliance of which checklists use is included. These errors have led to serious lapses in risk management and many well- documented cases of aircraft accidents. This paper reviews the literature of both organizational behavior management and applied behavior analysis where checklist use is an independent variable. This report presents various methods and technologies from other settings which may prove useful in the flight-training environment. Also included is a proposed study that will be conducted at a major flight training …

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The Impact Of Sector Characteristics And Aircraft Count On Air Traffic Control Communications And Workload, Esa M. Rantanen, Philip W. Maynard, Deniz Özhan Jan 2005

The Impact Of Sector Characteristics And Aircraft Count On Air Traffic Control Communications And Workload, Esa M. Rantanen, Philip W. Maynard, Deniz Özhan

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Means of communication between pilots and controllers is one of the fundamental principles of air traffic control (ATC). Consequently, air-ground communications will both reflect the taskload imposed on the controller as well as drive the workload experienced by the controller. Therefore, analysis of ATC communications could potentially reveal a very rich and detailed picture of the demands placed on a controller in a given sector and traffic situation. This paper reports analysis of ATC voice data obtained from three different sectors at the Indianapolis air route traffic control center (ZID ARTCC). The main purpose of this analysis was to examine …

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Human Factors And Human Resources Developments For Pan-European Implementation: Achievements In The European Atm Programme, Hermann Rathje Jan 2005

Human Factors And Human Resources Developments For Pan-European Implementation: Achievements In The European Atm Programme, Hermann Rathje

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

The European Air Traffic Management (EATM) Human Resources Programme aimed to deliver harmonised tools and a body of knowledge for the management of human issues in ATM in the three areas training, manpower (human resources management) and human factors. Products are available as Guidelines, as Technical Reference Material or Reports or as Methods and Tools for direct application. The four year work programme consisted of specific developments, testing and validation of these products available since end 2003 for implementation in the 41 European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) States. The implementation and use is not mandatory but products are applied increasingly …

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Pilots, Airspace Complexity, And Strategic Conflict Avoidance, Victor Riley, Edmundo Sierra, Gano Chatterji, Richard Mogford, Walter Johnson, Parimal Kopardekar, George Lawton Jan 2005

Pilots, Airspace Complexity, And Strategic Conflict Avoidance, Victor Riley, Edmundo Sierra, Gano Chatterji, Richard Mogford, Walter Johnson, Parimal Kopardekar, George Lawton

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Some future air traffic management concepts seek to place more separation responsibility on the pilot in order to achieve greater aircraft operating autonomy. Separating one’s own aircraft from others in something other than a see-and-avoid environment, however, would pose fundamentally new demands and challenges for pilots, and it is likely that new automation and display tools would be needed. Ideally, an automated strategic conflict avoidance system would behave consistently with pilot expectations and take pilot interests into account when suggesting resolution strategies. It might also recognize situations that pilots may have difficulty detecting and resolving on their own. At this …

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Checklist Usage As An Independent Variable In Student Pilot Task Performance Assessment, Dr. Vladimir N. Risukhin Jan 2005

Checklist Usage As An Independent Variable In Student Pilot Task Performance Assessment, Dr. Vladimir N. Risukhin

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

Aviation safety statistics show that checklist utilization by pilots is one of many safety-critical aspects of flight operations. Flight training practice and experience in teaching student pilots to the principles of the multi-crew flight environment require addressing the checklist issue. Conventionally there have been two contradictory flight safety aspects relevant to checklist usage in flight operations. Flight safety standards require that checklists must be performed in-full during normal and non-normal flight situations. Conversely, checklists can be sources of pilot distraction from controlling the airplane that may compromise flight safety. A FAA approved Flight Training Device (FTD) was used to prove …

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Transfer Between Training Of Part-Tasks In Complex Skill Training – Model Development And Experiment, Jan Joris Roessingh, Astrid M.L. Kappers, Jan J. Koenderink Jan 2005

Transfer Between Training Of Part-Tasks In Complex Skill Training – Model Development And Experiment, Jan Joris Roessingh, Astrid M.L. Kappers, Jan J. Koenderink

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2005

One of the most common instruction-strategies for training complex skills is part-training. In this paper a model is developed for the optimisation of schedules for part-training, the ‘optimal transfer model’. This model is based on individual learning, but may be generalised to groups of trainees. It is based on the idea that if there is functional skill transfer from part-training to whole-task performance, then there must be a training schedule that yields optimal results. In this context, an optimal training schedule is one in which part-training lasts as long as is necessary to ensure the best possible performance with the …

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