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2020

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Articles 1531 - 1560 of 1996

Full-Text Articles in Biology

Should Advanced Maternal Age Be A Deterrent For Attempting A Pregnancy?, Sarina Spira Jan 2020

Should Advanced Maternal Age Be A Deterrent For Attempting A Pregnancy?, Sarina Spira

The Science Journal of the Lander College of Arts and Sciences

In the developed world, the trend toward women of advanced age bearing children is very prevalent and seems likely to continue. For a variety of reasons, women are delaying pregnancy until 35 years and older when they suddenly seem keenly aware that their biological clocks are ticking. A review of various studies obtained from the Proquest and EBSCO databases indicates that there are definitely certain risks associated with advanced maternal age (AMA). As females age, the reduced number and quality of their remaining eggs contribute to reduced fertility. Congenital anomalies involving the number of chromosomes in the embryo increases as …

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Advancements In Vaccine Development: Measles Vs. Covid-19, Sarah Ziegler Jan 2020

Advancements In Vaccine Development: Measles Vs. Covid-19, Sarah Ziegler

The Science Journal of the Lander College of Arts and Sciences

As an ever-progressing field of study, vaccine development has made headway over the past decades. By doing a comparative study between development of the measles vaccine in the mid-20th century, and the ongoing development of the COVID-19 vaccine in 2020, many of the insights and advancements in the field can be easily highlighted. First, the knowledge and experience gained over those decades has helped the vaccine developing process become more efficient. With more vaccines in production, or at least under study, it is more likely to have a related precedent to build upon, as opposed to relying on a successful …

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Effective Treatments For Nicotine Addiction, Chaya Shor Jan 2020

Effective Treatments For Nicotine Addiction, Chaya Shor

The Science Journal of the Lander College of Arts and Sciences

Nicotine dependence as a result of smoking is a chronically relapsing disorder with detrimental effects. However, fortunately for smokers, an armamentarium of smoking cessation aids is available in the forms of nicotine replacement therapy (NRT), non-nicotinic drugs (namely varenicline and bupropion), and the novel nicotine vaccines, each with their own mode of action to moderate nicotine addiction. This paper analyzes the mechanism of action associated with nicotine addiction and the various methods of combat, or at the very least, attenuation of the addiction.

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Is Rapamycin An Effective Anti-Aging Drug?, Basya Aboud Jan 2020

Is Rapamycin An Effective Anti-Aging Drug?, Basya Aboud

The Science Journal of the Lander College of Arts and Sciences

Scientific and pharmaceutical advancements have revolutionized medicine. Many once- debilitating or fatal diseases can now be managed with medication. However, the search for a cure for the inevitable aging diseased state remained futile until recently. Rapamycin has been studied for its possible longevity effects, providing promising results for the development of anti-aging therapies. This paper evaluates the benefits and risks of rapamycin use. While rapamycin cannot be supported as a safe anti-aging drug, rapamycin studies have elucidated parts of the aging pathway, providing a breakthrough for anti-aging research.

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What Role Does Age-Associated Neuroplasticity Play In The Efficacy Of Cochlear Implantation?, Jacob Fliegelman Jan 2020

What Role Does Age-Associated Neuroplasticity Play In The Efficacy Of Cochlear Implantation?, Jacob Fliegelman

The Science Journal of the Lander College of Arts and Sciences

Bilateral, profound-severe, congenital deafness causes widespread structural and functional changes of the auditory system. In humans, the consequences of these changes are extensive and often include detriments to language acquisition and auditory perception. Fortunately, early intervention methods, such as cochlear implantation, can significantly mitigate inevitable auditory deficiencies. This review begins by briefly addressing early stages of brain development and associated anatomical discrepancies observed in congenitally deaf subjects. Considering the deleterious effects of congenital deafness, neuroplasticity, the ability of the brain to rewire itself, is of paramount importance in reversing the auditory impairments. Hence, its incorporation into the methods required for …

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Life Cycle And Morphological Characterization Of Colpodella Sp. (Atcc 50594) In Hay Medium, Troy A. Getty Jan 2020

Life Cycle And Morphological Characterization Of Colpodella Sp. (Atcc 50594) In Hay Medium, Troy A. Getty

ETD Archive

Colpodella species are free living biflagellated protists that prey on algae and bodonids in a process known as myzocytosis. Colpodella are phylogenetically closely related to Apicomplexa. Cyst and trophozoite stages have been identified in Colpodella species, however the mechanisms of encystation and excystation are unknown. The timing and transition of the life cycle stages are unknown. In the present study I investigated the life cycle of Colpodella sp. (ATCC 50594). Colpodella sp. were grown in diprotist cultures in tissue culture flasks containing Hay medium bacterized with Enterobacter aerogenes and containing Bodo caudatus as prey. I wanted to know the timing …

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Determinants Of Holliday Junction Formation And Resolution During Budding Yeast Meiosis, Marina Bykova Jan 2020

Determinants Of Holliday Junction Formation And Resolution During Budding Yeast Meiosis, Marina Bykova

ETD Archive

In the process of meiosis, 4 haploid cells are produced from 1 diploid cell in two rounds of division. During prophase I of meiosis I, double strand breaks (DSBs) are created by the Spo11 protein, some of which are later repaired by homologous recombination into crossovers. During homologous recombination, structures called Holliday Junctions are formed, which later are resolved into crossovers to allow homologous chromosomes to separate. Ifthey are not resolved, the cell arrests and cannot progress further in meiosis. I have investigated three proteins known or suspected to be involved in Holliday Junction formation and resolution: the transcription factor …

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Characterization Of The Immune Response To Anti-Mullerian Hormone, Justin M. Johnson Jan 2020

Characterization Of The Immune Response To Anti-Mullerian Hormone, Justin M. Johnson

ETD Archive

Anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) has been known since the mid-twentieth century as the substance secreted by the testes of the male fetus that is responsible for directing the proper development of the male reproductive organs from the primordial structures that would otherwise become the uterus and fallopian tubes. However, despite its longknown significance in male development, only recently has its importance in the adult female become evident. AMH is now considered to be not only a clinical indicator of the finite ovarian egg supply, but a vital regulator thereof throughout the reproductive life of the female. Dysfunctions in AMH regulation may …

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Revision Of The Genus Styxosaurus And Relationships Of The Late Cretaceous Elasmosaurids (Sauropterygia: Plesiosauria) Of The Western Interior Seaway, Elliott Armour Smith Jan 2020

Revision Of The Genus Styxosaurus And Relationships Of The Late Cretaceous Elasmosaurids (Sauropterygia: Plesiosauria) Of The Western Interior Seaway, Elliott Armour Smith

Theses, Dissertations and Capstones

Growing evidence indicates that elasmosaurid plesiosaurs from the Late Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway are members of a single clade, the Styxosaurinae. The styxosaurines are reported to be mostly Campanian in age, and taxa within the clade obtain the longest necks, by number of cervical vertebrae, of any known vertebrate. The styxosaurines are morphologically diverse and include taxa that exhibit a secondary reduction in neck length. Given the evolutionary plasticity of postcranial characters in plesiosaurs in general, and neck length in elasmosaurs, scrutiny of cranial osteology is pertinent to advancing understanding of Western Interior Seaway elasmosaurids. This study finds that an …

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Water In Your Neighbourhood: A Model For Implementing A Semester-Long Course-Based Undergraduate Research Project In Introductory Biology, Ana Lucia Fuentes, Maria Entezari Jan 2020

Water In Your Neighbourhood: A Model For Implementing A Semester-Long Course-Based Undergraduate Research Project In Introductory Biology, Ana Lucia Fuentes, Maria Entezari

Publications and Research

Undergraduate biology education has changed over the past decade, incorporating an iterative and evidence-based approach. Many educational assessments have confirmed the effectiveness of integrating authentic research and open-ended inquiry into introductory biology courses, demonstrating a significant positive impact on students’ learning and attitude towards STEM majors. Despite these findings, only a handful of Biology instructors in 2-year colleges adopt this approach, and when adopted, most activities constitute a small fraction of these courses. Finding a feasible, sustainable, semester-long, and cost-effective strategy to incorporate authentic research in the curriculum which promotes integrated understanding of science and addresses socio-scientific issues, is a …

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Pacvr: Plastome Assembly Coverage Visualization In R, Michael Gruenstaeudl, Nils Jenke Jan 2020

Pacvr: Plastome Assembly Coverage Visualization In R, Michael Gruenstaeudl, Nils Jenke

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

Plastid genomes typically display a circular, quadripartite structure with two inverted repeat regions, which challenges automatic assembly procedures. The correct assembly of plastid genomes is a prerequisite for the validity of subsequent analyses on genome structure and evolution. The average coverage depth of a genome assembly is often used as an indicator of assembly quality. Visualizing coverage depth across a draft genome is a critical step, which allows users to inspect the quality of the assembly and, where applicable, identify regions of reduced assembly confidence. Despite the interplay between genome structure and assembly quality, no contemporary, user-friendly software tool can …

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Seen In Science: Lgbtq+ Inclusivity In Anatomy & Physiology Texts, Harshini Sirvisetty, Kat Ray King, Linda Catherine Fuselier Jan 2020

Seen In Science: Lgbtq+ Inclusivity In Anatomy & Physiology Texts, Harshini Sirvisetty, Kat Ray King, Linda Catherine Fuselier

Undergraduate Arts and Research Showcase

Biology is unique from other science disciplines in that concepts taught in core classes can inform our student’s understanding of sex and gender. A biology major encounters lessons on sex determination, sexual reproduction, and sex characteristics in their courses. The language used in these units matters. It is imperative that educators consider how the language, examples, and content that we use in classrooms drive (or not) inclusivity for gender- and sexuality-diverse (GSD) (aka LGBTQ+) individuals. We chose to analyze four college-level human anatomy/physiology (AP) textbooks for GSD population inclusivity. We adopted a queer theory framework to critically examine how sex, …

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Crispr-Cas9 Editing Of Nitrate Transporter Gene, Um03849, In Ustilago Maydis, Luke A. Schroeder, Sunita Khanal, Michael H. Perlin Jan 2020

Crispr-Cas9 Editing Of Nitrate Transporter Gene, Um03849, In Ustilago Maydis, Luke A. Schroeder, Sunita Khanal, Michael H. Perlin

Undergraduate Arts and Research Showcase

Ustilago maydis, the basidiomycete smut-fungus, can infect and cause tumors in corn plants. For this, mating between compatible haploid cells is important. The mating and subsequent dimorphic transition in U. maydis require starvation for nutrients such as nitrogen, in addition to pheromone-receptor interactions between compatible partners. In this research, the CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technique was used to create INDEL mutations (sequence insertion or deletion) in the nitrate transporter gene, um03849, in U. maydis. The gene was edited in mating compatible haploid strains 1/2 and 2/9. The phenotypes were characterized for the um03849 mutants as to growth ability, mating …

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Bioproduction Of Molecules For Structural 3d Printing Filaments, Bailey M Hume, Mark P. Running, Jesse Rozsa, Hyun Jin Jung Jan 2020

Bioproduction Of Molecules For Structural 3d Printing Filaments, Bailey M Hume, Mark P. Running, Jesse Rozsa, Hyun Jin Jung

Undergraduate Arts and Research Showcase

In our laboratory, we are focused on the study of plant cells and their use in daily, real-world applications. Our main goal is to produce organic, conductive, and biodegradable material to be used by KAMPERS collaborators. Physcomitrella patens is the model organism we have used. We have created a ggb knockout mutant line of P. patens which is long lasting (immortal) and advantageous over wild-type strains for use in bioreactors. Our laboratory has identified several different metabolic pathways that have potential uses in creating conductive material for use in 3D printing. These pathways are the polyisoprene pathway, the polyacetylene pathway, …

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The Effects Of Nutrient Availability On Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Mono And Co-Culture Biofilms, Julie T. Nguyen, Deborah R. Yoder-Himes Ph.D., Rhiannon Cecil Jan 2020

The Effects Of Nutrient Availability On Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Mono And Co-Culture Biofilms, Julie T. Nguyen, Deborah R. Yoder-Himes Ph.D., Rhiannon Cecil

Undergraduate Arts and Research Showcase

Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder characterized by faulty ion channels and result in thick mucus accumulation, especially in lungs. Mucus buildup provides ideal conditions for bacterial infections. Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) is the second most prevalent bacterium isolated from people with CF and has a high clinical importance. Most CF pathogens form biofilms which make treatment of infections difficult. Biofilms are clusters of cells attached to a surface enclosed in a structured matrix. These structures are a means to provide shelter for bacteria from the environment, especially antibiotics and the immune system. PA alone can form these biofilms, but …

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Biological Foundations I, Fardad Firooznia Jan 2020

Biological Foundations I, Fardad Firooznia

Open Educational Resources

This is a syllabus for a first-semester introductory biology class, including reading links for current news articles related to the course topics as well as an OpenStax textbook.

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Graphic Novels In Biology – A Novel Assessment Idea, Sowmya Anjur Jan 2020

Graphic Novels In Biology – A Novel Assessment Idea, Sowmya Anjur

Faculty Publications & Research

Galileo once said, “You cannot teach a man anything, you can only help him find it within himself.” (Goodreads, 2020). I have often pondered upon how best I could use this advice. I have been an educator for 24 years and have loved every minute of it. During this time, I have seen students of all cadres come and go, but they all have one thing in common - their innate fear of written assessments. In general, students in high school tend to have a different perspective on education than their adult counterparts - they tend to procrastinate, are usually …

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Biogeography Of American Northwest Hot Spring A/B′-Lineage Synechococcus Populations, Eric D. Becraft, Jason M. Wood, Frederick M. Cohan, David M. Ward Jan 2020

Biogeography Of American Northwest Hot Spring A/B′-Lineage Synechococcus Populations, Eric D. Becraft, Jason M. Wood, Frederick M. Cohan, David M. Ward

Biology

Previous analyses have shown how diversity among unicellular cyanobacteria inhabiting island-like hot springs is structured relative to physical separation and physiochemical differences among springs, especially at local to regional scales. However, these studies have been limited by the low resolution provided by the molecular markers surveyed. We analyzed large datasets obtained by high-throughput sequencing of a segment of the photosynthesis gene psaA from samples collected in hot springs from geothermal basins in Yellowstone National Park, Montana, and Oregon, all known from previous studies to contain populations of A/B′-lineage Synechococcus. The fraction of identical sequences was greater among springs separated by …

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Hiding In Plain Sight: The Globally Distributed Bacterial Candidate Phylum Pauc34f, Michael L. Chen, Eric D. Becraft, Maria Pachladaki, Julia M. Brown, Jessica K. Jarett, Josep M. Gasol, Nikolai V. Ravin, Duane P. Moser, Takuro Nunoura, Gerhard J. Herndl, Tanja Woyke, Ramunas Stepanauskas Jan 2020

Hiding In Plain Sight: The Globally Distributed Bacterial Candidate Phylum Pauc34f, Michael L. Chen, Eric D. Becraft, Maria Pachladaki, Julia M. Brown, Jessica K. Jarett, Josep M. Gasol, Nikolai V. Ravin, Duane P. Moser, Takuro Nunoura, Gerhard J. Herndl, Tanja Woyke, Ramunas Stepanauskas

Biology

Bacterial candidate phylum PAUC34f was originally discovered in marine sponges and is widely considered to be composed of sponge symbionts. Here, we report 21 single amplified genomes (SAGs) of PAUC34f from a variety of environments, including the dark ocean, lake sediments, and a terrestrial aquifer. The diverse origins of the SAGs and the results of metagenome fragment recruitment suggest that some PAUC34f lineages represent relatively abundant, free-living cells in environments other than sponge microbiomes, including the deep ocean. Both phylogenetic and biogeographic patterns, as well as genome content analyses suggest that PAUC34f associations with hosts evolved independently multiple times, while …

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Metaphors For A New Body Politic: Gaia As Holobiont, Scott F. Gilbert Jan 2020

Metaphors For A New Body Politic: Gaia As Holobiont, Scott F. Gilbert

Biology Faculty Works

No abstract provided.

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Toward A Symbiotic Perspective On Public Health: Recognizing The Ambivalence Of Microbes In The Anthropocene, S. Sariola, Scott F. Gilbert Jan 2020

Toward A Symbiotic Perspective On Public Health: Recognizing The Ambivalence Of Microbes In The Anthropocene, S. Sariola, Scott F. Gilbert

Biology Faculty Works

Microbes evolve in complex environments that are often fashioned, in part, by human desires. In a global perspective, public health has played major roles in structuring how microbes are perceived, cultivated, and destroyed. The germ theory of disease cast microbes as enemies of the body and the body politic. Antibiotics have altered microbial development by providing stringent natural selection on bacterial species, and this has led to the formation of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains. Public health perspectives such as “Precision Public Health” and “One Health” have recently been proposed to further manage microbial populations. However, neither of these take into account …

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Ticks On Lizards: Parasite-Host Interactions Of The Southern Alligator Lizard (Elgaria Multicarinata) In Washington State, Emma Houghton Jan 2020

Ticks On Lizards: Parasite-Host Interactions Of The Southern Alligator Lizard (Elgaria Multicarinata) In Washington State, Emma Houghton

Undergraduate Honors Theses

I investigated interactions between ectoparasites (ticks) and their host, the southern alligator lizard (Elgaria multicarinata). Alligator lizards are capable of complement-mediated killing of the Lyme disease spirochete carried by ticks and may potentially reduce Lyme disease prevalence by cleansing pathogenic organisms from ticks. Despite this, little is known about host-parasite dynamics in alligator lizards. My goals were to 1) assess patterns of tick presence (i.e. parasite load) on alligator lizards and 2) investigate potential negative effects of ticks on alligator lizards. I sampled lizards during the summer of 2019 near Catherine Creek, along the Columbia River Gorge in southern Washington. …

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Investigating The Avian Species Composition, Diversity, And Abundance Of Engelhorn Pond, Kiana Rose Jan 2020

Investigating The Avian Species Composition, Diversity, And Abundance Of Engelhorn Pond, Kiana Rose

Undergraduate Honors Theses

Central Washington University’s Engelhorn Pond contains important habitats for many organisms, particularly migratory birds, and is a valuable resource for students. However, little information is available about the wildlife inhabiting the pond. The pond’s discrete location means that many people are unaware of its existence. In addition, the pond is threatened by a number of anthropogenic sources, including chemical runoff, garbage, and feral cats. By using point counts, a common ornithological survey technique, I recorded the bird species present at the pond during all seasons of the year. I collected data using point counts during 13 visits from June of …

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Ticks On Lizards: Parasite-Host Interactions Of The Southern Alligator Lizard (Elgaria Multicarinata) In Washington State, Emma Houghton Jan 2020

Ticks On Lizards: Parasite-Host Interactions Of The Southern Alligator Lizard (Elgaria Multicarinata) In Washington State, Emma Houghton

All Undergraduate Projects

I investigated interactions between ectoparasites (ticks) and their host, the southern alligator lizard (Elgaria multicarinata). Alligator lizards are capable of complement-mediated killing of the Lyme disease spirochete carried by ticks and may potentially reduce Lyme disease prevalence by cleansing pathogenic organisms from ticks. Despite this, little is known about host-parasite dynamics in alligator lizards. My goals were to 1) assess patterns of tick presence (i.e. parasite load) on alligator lizards and 2) investigate potential negative effects of ticks on alligator lizards. I sampled lizards during the summer of 2019 near Catherine Creek, along the Columbia River Gorge in southern Washington. …

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The Effects Of Sleep Deprivation On Mental Health And Neurological Disorders, Gabriella Victoria Fernandez De Salvo Jan 2020

The Effects Of Sleep Deprivation On Mental Health And Neurological Disorders, Gabriella Victoria Fernandez De Salvo

Honors Undergraduate Theses

Sleep deprivation is defined as an individual sleeping less than 6 hours per night. It is a common behavior amongst individuals who live in industrialized nations.Along with industrialization, its prevalence is also expected to rise with age. Despite this, there has been a shift in recent years with sleep deprivation increasing in the youth, likely related to the increased use of technology during the nighttime. Sleep deprivation and chronic sleep disruption are behaviors commonly observed amongst patients suffering from neurological and psychiatric disorders, like Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, depression, and anxiety. Many of these patients suffer from sleep disorders like …

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Investigating The Effects Of Uv Filters In Sunscreen On Human And Environmental Health, Brittany M. Thompson Jan 2020

Investigating The Effects Of Uv Filters In Sunscreen On Human And Environmental Health, Brittany M. Thompson

Honors Undergraduate Theses

Ultraviolet filters are active ingredients in sunscreen that protect us from harmful UV radiation. However, organic UV filters are thought to have adverse effects on the environment and humans. In recent years, fear of harmful impacts of sunscreen has caused a surge of coral reef safe sunscreens to hit the market. These sunscreens, which contain inorganic metal oxides as UV filters, have been accepted as safe for humans and the environment until recently. Metal oxides in reef safe sunscreens may form intermediates in the water that can harm marine life and can absorb through the skin and into the blood, …

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Sensing Symbiosis: Investigating The Symbiotic Magnetic Sensing Hypothesis In Fish Using Genomics, Elizabeth Boggs Jan 2020

Sensing Symbiosis: Investigating The Symbiotic Magnetic Sensing Hypothesis In Fish Using Genomics, Elizabeth Boggs

Honors Undergraduate Theses

The mechanism behind magnetoreception – the ability to sense magnetic fields for orientation and navigation – still remains one of the most difficult questions to answer in sensory biology, with fish being just one of many taxa known to possess this sense. Characterizing a magnetic sense in fish is crucial for understanding how they navigate their environment and can inform on how increasing anthropogenic sources of electromagnetic fields in aquatic environments may affect threatened fish species. This study examined the hypothesis put forth by Natan and Vortman (2017) that magnetotactic bacteria (MTB), bacteria that create their own chains of magnetic …

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Role Of Polyploidy In Leaf Functional Trait Evolution Across Wild Helianthus, Anestacia S. Robinson Jan 2020

Role Of Polyploidy In Leaf Functional Trait Evolution Across Wild Helianthus, Anestacia S. Robinson

Honors Undergraduate Theses

Whole genome duplication, or polyploidy, is a common process in plants by which failures in meiosis or fertilization result in offspring with twice the number of chromosomes. This doubles the number of copies of every gene, an effect thought to generate new ‘raw material' upon which natural selection can act. Few studies exist examining the consequences of polyploidy for plant physiological traits. Doubling the number of gene copies may have unknown effects on leaf structure and function. In this study, I compare diploid, tetraploid, and hexaploid species within the genus Helianthus (wild sunflowers). Forty different accessions of wild sunflowers were …

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Belief In Genetic Determinism Within Academic Levels, Miranda Massmann, Katie Humrick, Linda Fuselier Jan 2020

Belief In Genetic Determinism Within Academic Levels, Miranda Massmann, Katie Humrick, Linda Fuselier

Undergraduate Arts and Research Showcase

Belief in genetic determinism (BGD) is the belief that genes attribute more influence on the expression of traits than scientific research supports. The environment and other factors, such as epigenetics, factor heavily into the expression of traits and it is important that students from all backgrounds understand this since BGD has been associated with societal instances of racism and sexism. We analyzed essay responses that undergraduate students wrote in response to a socioscientific issue (SSI) about the use of CRISPR/Cas9 technology for non-medical enhancement in humans to examine the presence of BGD. Our sample was composed of non-biology majors, lower …

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Evaluation Of The Efficacy Of A Cholera Toxin-Based Staphylococcus Aureus Vaccine Against Bovine Intramammary Challenge, Hussain A. Alabdullah, Elise Overgaard, Danielle Scarbrough, Janet E. Williams, Omid Mohammad Mousa, Gary Dunn, Laura Bond, Mark A. Mcguire, Juliette K. Tinker Jan 2020

Evaluation Of The Efficacy Of A Cholera Toxin-Based Staphylococcus Aureus Vaccine Against Bovine Intramammary Challenge, Hussain A. Alabdullah, Elise Overgaard, Danielle Scarbrough, Janet E. Williams, Omid Mohammad Mousa, Gary Dunn, Laura Bond, Mark A. Mcguire, Juliette K. Tinker

Biology Faculty Publications and Presentations

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a primary agent of bovine mastitis and a source of significant economic loss for the dairy industry. We previously reported antigen-specific immune induction in the milk and serum of dairy cows following vaccination with a cholera toxin A2 and B subunit (CTA2/B) based vaccine containing the iron-regulated surface determinant A (IsdA) and clumping factor A (ClfA) antigens of S. aureus (IsdA + ClfA-CTA2/B). The goal of the current study was to assess the efficacy of this vaccine to protect against S. aureus infection after intramammary challenge. Six mid-lactation …

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