Biochemistry Commons^™

Deep Models For Brain Em Image Segmentation: Novel Insights And Improved Performance, Ahmed Fakhry, Hanchuan Peng, Shuiwang Ji

Computer Science Faculty Publications

Motivation: Accurate segmentation of brain electron microscopy (EM) images is a critical step in dense circuit reconstruction. Although deep neural networks (DNNs) have been widely used in a number of applications in computer vision, most of these models that proved to be effective on image classification tasks cannot be applied directly to EM image segmentation, due to the different objectives of these tasks. As a result, it is desirable to develop an optimized architecture that uses the full power of DNNs and tailored specifically for EM image segmentation.

Results: In this work, we proposed a novel design of DNNs for …

Characterization Of Cytidylyltransferase Enzyme Activity Through High Performance Liquid Chromatography, James Brault

Theses and Dissertations

The cytidylyltransferases are a family of enzymes that utilize cytidine 5â?? triphosphate (CTP) to synthesize molecules that are precursors to membrane phospholipids. There are four well known enzymes: CTP: phosphoethanolamine cytidylyltransferase (ECT), CTP: glycerol-3-phosphate cytidylyltransferase (GCT), 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate cytidylyltransferase synthetase (CMS), and CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT). Previously, a radioisotope tagging method was employed to study cytidylyltransferase catalysis. Using CCT as a model, a method utilizing high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was developed to replace the radioisotope scintillation technique. The development of this new HPLC method is cheaper, more efficient, and more accurate than the previously established method.

The targets of separation …

Microsolvation Of Anions By Molecules Forming Ch∙∙X- Hydrogen Bonds, Steve Scheiner, Binod Nepal

Chemistry and Biochemistry Faculty Publications

Various anions were surrounded by n molecules of CF₃H, which was used as a prototype CH donor solvent, and the structures and energies studied by M06-2X calculations with a 6-31+G∗∗ basis set. Anions considered included the halides F^-, Cl^-, Br^- and I^-, as well as those with multiple proton acceptor sites: CN^-, NO₃ ^-, HCOO^-, CH₃COO^-, HSO₄ ^-, H₂PO₄ ^-, and anions with higher charges SO₄ ^2-, HPO₄ ^2- and PO_{4 …}

Production And Harvest Of Microalgae In Wastewater Raceways With Resource Recycling, Alexander Colin Roberts

Master's Theses

Microalgae can be grown on municipal wastewater media to both treat the wastewater and produce feedstock for algae biofuel production. However the reliability of treatment must be demonstrated, as well as high areal algae productivity on recycled wastewater media and efficient sedimentation harvesting. This processes was studied at pilot scale in the present research.

A pilot facility was operated with nine CO₂-supplemented raceway ponds, each with a 33-m² surface area and a 0.3-m depth, continuously from March 6, 2013 through September 24, 2014. The ponds were operated as three sets of triplicates with two sets continuously fed …

Novel Enzyme Perspectives: Arylalkylamine N-Acyltransferases From Bombyx Mori & 1-Deoxy- D-Xylulose-5-Phosphate Synthase From Plasmodium Falciparum And Plasmodium Vivax, Matthew R. Battistini

USF Tampa Graduate Theses and Dissertations

This dissertation is dedicated to the research and investigation of novel enzymes and the methods used to study them, with physiological roles ranging from isoprenoid biosynthesis to neurotransmitter production. Using a combination of bioinformatics, recombinant cloning, enzymology, and proteomics, we have contributed to the understanding and exploration of several human illnesses, including malaria, cancer, and endocrine dysfunction.

Our first project involved studying the enzymes responsible for N-acylarylalkylamide biosynthesis in Bombyx mori. Very little is known how these potent signaling molecules are produced in vivo, however, one possible pathway is the direct conjugation of an acyl-CoA to a corresponding …

In Situ Measurements And Modeling Of Reactive Trace Gases In A Small Biomass Burning Plume, M. Muller, B. Anderson, A. Beyersdorf, J. H. Crawford, G. Diskin, P. Eichler, A. Fried, F. N. Keutsch, T. Mikoviny, K. L. Thornhill, J. G. Walega, A. J. Weinheimer, M. Yang, Robert Yokelson, A. Wisthaler

Chemistry and Biochemistry Faculty Publications

An instrumented NASA P-3B aircraft was used for airborne sampling of trace gases in a plume that had emanated from a small forest understory fire in Georgia, USA. The plume was sampled at its origin for deriving emission factors and followed ~ 13.6 km downwind for observing chemical changes during the first hour of atmospheric aging. The P-3B payload included a proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometer (PTR-ToF-MS), which measured non-methane organic gases (NMOGs) at unprecidented spatio-temporal resolution (10m/0.1 s). Quantitative emission data are reported for CO₂, CO, NO, NO₂, HONO, NH₃ and 16 NMOGs (formaldehyde, methanol, …

Two-Ply Channels For Faster Wicking In Paper-Based Microfluidic Devices, Conor K. Camplisson, Kevin M. Schilling, William L. Pedrotti, Howard A. Stone, Andres W. Martinez

Chemistry and Biochemistry

This article describes the development of porous two-ply channels for paper-based microfluidic devices that wick fluids significantly faster than conventional, porous, single-ply channels. The two-ply channels were made by stacking two single-ply channels on top of each other and were fabricated entirely out of paper, wax and toner using two commercially available printers, a convection oven and a thermal laminator. The wicking in paper-based channels was studied and modeled using a modified Lucas–Washburn equation to account for the effect of evaporation, and a paper-based titration device incorporating two-ply channels was demonstrated.

Cobalt-Centred Boron Molecular Drums With The Highest Coordination Number In The Cob16− Cluster, Ivan A. Popov, Tian Jian, Gary V. Lopez, Alexander I. Boldyrev, Lai-Sheng Wang

Chemistry and Biochemistry Faculty Publications

The electron deficiency and strong bonding capacity of boron have led to a vast variety of molecular structures in chemistry and materials science. Here we report the observation of highly symmetric cobalt-centered boron drum-like structures of CoB16⁻, characterized by photoelectron spectroscopy and ab initio calculations. The photoelectron spectra display a relatively simple spectral pattern, suggesting a high symmetry structure. Two nearly degenerate isomers with D8d(I) and C4v (II) symmetries are found computationally to compete for the global minimum. These drum-like structures consist of two B8 rings sandwiching a cobalt atom, which has the highest …

Temporal Variation In Optical Properties Of Chromophoric Dissolved Organic Matter (Cdom) In Southern California Coastal Waters With Nearshore Kelp And Seagrass, Catherine D. Clark, Warren J. De Bruyn, Paige Aiona

Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Sciences Faculty Articles and Research

Optical properties of chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) were measured in surf zone waters in diurnal field studies at a Southern California beach with nearshore kelp and seagrass beds and intertidal plant wrack. Absorption coefficients (aCDOM(300 nm)) ranged from 0.35 m21 to 3.7 m21 with short-term variability<1 h, increases at ebb and flood tides and higher values (6 m21) during an offshore storm event. Spectral slopes (S) ranged from 0.0028 nm21 to 0.017 nm21, with higher values after the storm; S was generally inversely correlated with aCDOM(300 nm). 3-D excitation–emission matrix spectra (EEMs) for samples with lower S values had humic-type peaks associated with terrestrial material (A, C), marine microbial material (M) and protein peaks, characteristic of freshly produced organic material. Samples with high S values had no or reduced protein peaks, consistent with aged material. Fluorescent indexes (f450/f500 >2.5, BIX>1.1) were consistent with microbial aquatic sources. Leachates of senescent kelp and seagrass had protein and humic-type EEM peaks. After solar simulator irradiation (4 h), protein peaks rapidly photochemically degraded, humic-type peak C increased in intensity and peak M disappeared. Optical characteristics of kelp leachates were most similar to field samples, …

Multi-Dimensional Glycan Microarrays With Glyco-Macroligands, Satya Nandana Narla, Huan Nie, Yu Li, Xue-Long Sun

Chemistry Faculty Publications

Glycan microarray has become a powerful high-throughput tool for examining binding interactions of carbohydrates with the carbohydrate binding biomolecules like proteins, enzymes, antibodies etc. It has shown great potential for biomedical research and applications, such as antibody detection and profiling, vaccine development, biomarker discovery, and drug screening. Most glycan microarrays were made with monovalent glycans immobilized directly onto the array surface via either covalent or non-covalent bond, which afford a multivalent glycans in two dimensional (2D) displaying. A variety of glyco-macroligands have been developed to mimic multivalent carbohydrate-protein interactions for studying carbohydrate-protein interactions and biomedical research and applications. Recently, a …

Ligand Frameworks For Transition-Metal Complexes That Model Metalloenzyme Active, Denan Wang

Dissertations (1934 -)

Advances in the field of biomimetic inorganic chemistry require the design of sophisticated ligand frameworks that reflect the amazing complexity of metalloenzyme active sites. For instance, most active sites feature extensive hydrogen-bonding interactions between ligands bound to the metal center (the “first” coordination sphere) and nearby units in the outer (or “second”) sphere. Since these interactions modify the structural and electronic properties of the active sites, a number of inorganic chemists have sought to design ligands that permit outer-sphere functional groups to interact with first-sphere donors. This dissertation describes our contribution to these broader efforts to model the second coordination …

Image-Charge Detection €“ Novel Instrumentation And Applications, Brandon Lee Barney

Theses and Dissertations

Image-charge detection is an analytical technique in which a highly-charged particle is detected by the magnitude of the image current that it generates in a detecting electrode. This current is represented as a voltage between the charged particle and the sensing electrode. It is a single particle detection method, ideal for the analysis of large, variable mass particles such as biological cells. Some of the physical properties of Bacillus subtilis spores were explored using different applications of image-charge detection. B. subtilis is a gram-negative spore-forming bacteria that has been shown to exhibit extremophile behavior. The particular extremophile behavior that was …

Heterogeneous Oxidation Of Catechol, Elizabeth A. Pillar, Ruixin Zhou, Marcelo I. Guzman

Chemistry Faculty Publications

Natural and anthropogenic emissions of aromatic hydrocarbons from biomass burning, agro-industrial settings, and fossil fuel combustion contribute precursors to secondary aerosol formation (SOA). How these compounds are processed under humid tropospheric conditions is the focus of current attention to understand their environmental fate. This work shows how catechol thin films, a model for oxygenated aromatic hydrocarbons present in biomass burning and combustion aerosols, undergo heterogeneous oxidation at the air–solid interface under variable relative humidity (RH = 0–90%). The maximum reactive uptake coefficient of O₃(g) by catechol γ_O3 = (7.49 ± 0.35) × 10^–6 occurs for …

Coastal Sediment Elevation Change Following Anthropogenic Mangrove Clearing, Heather Lyn Hayden, Elise F. Granek

Environmental Science and Management Faculty Publications and Presentations

Coastal mangrove forests along tropical shorelines serve as an important interface between land and sea. They provide a physical buffer protecting the coastline from erosion and act as sediment “traps” catching terrestrial sediment, thus preventing smothering of subtidal coral reefs. Coastal development that removes mangrove habitat may impact adjacent nearshore coral reefs through sedimentation and nutrient loading. We examined differences in sediment elevation change between patches of open-coast intact and anthropogenically cleared red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle) on the east side of Turneffe Atoll, Belize, to quantify changes following mangrove clearing. Samples were collected over a 24 month period at five …

An Analytical Method For Detecting Toxic Metal Cations Using Cyclotriveratrylene Derivative Capped Gold Nanoparticles, Zachary R. Osner, Richard C. Holz, Daniel P. Becker Ph.D.

Chemistry: Faculty Publications and Other Works

Cyclotriveratrylene-oxime (CTV-oxime) derivatives that terminate with a dithiolate linker were synthesized enabling the supramolecular scaffold to adhere to gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with the bowl-shaped cavity of the CTV scaffold exposed for utilization in host–guest chemistry. Exposure of these CTV functionalized AuNPs to varying concentrations of di- and trivalent metal cations resulted in the formation of large CTV-AuNP polymeric clusters and an accompanying a shift in the plasmon resonance. These interactions between the CTV-AuNPs and the metal cations in solution provides proof-of-concept that supramolecular functionalized AuNPs can be used as a simple and straightforward, on-site detection system for toxic metal cations …

Biomass Burning Emissions And Potential Air Quality Impacts Of Volatile Organic Compounds And Other Trace Gases From Temperate Fuels Common In The United States, J. B. Gilman, B. M. Lerner, W. C. Kuster, P. D. Goldan, C. Warneke, P. R. Veres, J. M. Roberts, J. A. De Gouw, I. R. Burling, Robert Yokelson

Chemistry and Biochemistry Faculty Publications

A comprehensive suite of instruments was used to quantify the emissions of over 200 organic gases, including methane and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and 9 inorganic gases from 56 laboratory burns of 18 different biomass fuel types common in the southeastern, southwestern, or northern United States. A gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) provided extensive chemical detail of discrete air samples collected during a laboratory burn and was complemented by real-time measurements of organic and inorganic species via an open-path Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (OP-FTIR) and 3 different chemical ionization-mass spectrometers. These measurements were conducted in February 2009 at the U.S. Department …

Metal-Free Tandem Beckmann–Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution Cascade Affording Diaryl Imines, Ketones, Amines, And Quinazolines, Samuel Sarsah, Marlon R. Lutz Jr., Kailyn Chichi Bobb, Daniel Becker

Chemistry: Faculty Publications and Other Works

A cascade reaction sequence involving a Beckmann rearrangement on benzophenone oxime followed by an electrophilic aromatic substitution (EAS) on the intermediate nitrilium ion affords N-phenyl diaryl imines that may then be hydrolyzed to ketones, or reduced to the corresponding amines. Reaction with benzonitrile afforded 2,4-diphenylquinazoline through a Beckmann–Ritter–EAS cascade.

Nmr-Based Structural Analysis Of Threonylcarbamoyl-Amp Synthase And Its Substrate Interactions, Kimberly A. Harris, Benjamin G. Bobay, Kathryn L. Sarachan, Alexis F. Sims, Yann Bilbille, Christopher Deutsch, Dirk Iwata-Reuyl, Paul F. Agris

Chemistry Faculty Publications and Presentations

The hypermodified nucleoside N(6)-threonylcarbamoyladenosine (t(6)A37) is present in many distinct tRNA species and has been found in organisms in all domains of life. This post-transcriptional modification enhances translation fidelity by stabilizing the anticodon/codon interaction in the ribosomal decoding site. The biosynthetic pathway of t(6)A37 is complex and not well understood. In bacteria, the following four proteins have been discovered to be both required and sufficient for t(6)A37 modification: TsaC, TsaD, TsaB, and TsaE. Of these, TsaC and TsaD are members of universally conserved protein families. Although TsaC has been shown to catalyze the formation of L-threonylcarbamoyl-AMP, a key intermediate in …

Poly(N-Isopropylacrylamide) Hydrogels For Storage And Delivery Of Reagents To Paper-Based Analytical Devices, Haydn T. Mitchell, Spencer Schultz, Philip Costanzo, Andres W. Martinez

Chemistry and Biochemistry

The thermally responsive hydrogel N,N'-methylenebisacrylamide-cross-linked poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) was developed and evaluated as a reagent storage and delivery system for microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (microPADs). PNIPAM was shown to successfully deliver multiple solutions to microPADs in specific sequences or simultaneously in laminar-flow configuration and was found to be suitable for delivering four classes of reagents to the devices: Small molecules, enzymes, antibodies and DNA. PNIPAM was also able to successfully deliver a series of standard glucose solutions to microPADs equipped to perform a colorimetric glucose assay. The results of these tests were used to produce an external calibration …

Analytical Approaches In Investigating The Kinetics Of Water-Molecule Complexes In Tropospheric Reactions, William J. Keeton

Theses and Dissertations

Ozone is a heavily monitored pollutant. Ozone is not directly emitted into the atmosphere, but rather the product of chemical reactions. Ground level ozone occurs when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react with each other in the presence of sunlight. The primary precursors of ozone are anthropogenically emitted, and as a result, tropospheric ozone has cost millions of dollars in damages and has hurt the health of countless people. This dissertation is a collection of work that aims to provide insight into atmospheric reactions that result in tropospheric ozone and the instrumentation to study such reactions. While …

Histone Deacetylase 6 (Hdac6) Is Critical For Tumor Cell Survival And Promotes The Pro-Survival Activity Of 14-3-3Ζ Viadeacetylation Of Lysines Within The14-3-3Ζ Binding Pocket, Jeffrey Benjamin Mortenson

Theses and Dissertations

Our understanding of non-histone acetylation as a means of cellular regulation is in its infancy. Using a mass spectrometry approach we identified acetylated lysine residues and monitored acetylation changes across the proteome as a consequence of metabolic stress (hypoxia). We observed changes in acetylation status of non-histone lysines in tumor cells. Through the use of small molecule inhibitors of histone deacetylase enzymes (HDACs) and siRNA screening identified HDAC6 as a pro-survival regulator of lysine acetylation during hypoxia. The phospho-binding protein 14-3-3ζ acts as a signaling hub controlling a network of interacting partners and oncogenic pathways. We show here that lysines …

Designing Fret Assays To Study Electrostatic Interactions Pertaining To The Binding Of Intrinsically Disordered Proteins, Ashley Ann Howard

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Fibroblast growth factor receptor plays a major role in several biological processes. Without FGFR, a human cannot live. FGFR is involved in cell differentiation and wound healing. Of course, if FGFR signaling becomes unregulated, it causes severe distress in the body. Several cancers are contributed to high signaling levels, as well as developmental conditions like rickets and Kallmann’s syndrome. FGFR is thought to undergo an auto-inhibition (or self-regulatory) process in order to try to facilitate regulation. The exact method of this inhibition is currently unknown, but is proposed to involve the unstructured acid box region of FGFR. We developed a …

Investigating The Links Between Ozone And Organic Aerosol Chemistry In A Biomass Burning Plume From A Prescribed Fire In California Chaparral, M. J. Alvarado, C. R. Lonsdale, Robert Yokelson, Sheryl Kashi Akagi, H. Coe, J. S. Craven, E. V. Fischer, G. R. Mcmeeking, J. H. Seinfeld, T. Soni, J. W. Taylor, D. R. Weise, C. E. Wold

Chemistry and Biochemistry Faculty Publications

Within minutes after emission, complex photochemistry in biomass burning smoke plumes can cause large changes in the concentrations of ozone (O3) and organic aerosol (OA). Being able to understand and simulate this rapid chemical evolution under a wide variety of conditions is a critical part of forecasting the impact of these fires on air quality, atmospheric composition, and climate. Here we use version 2.1 of the Aerosol Simulation Program (ASP) to simulate the evolution of O₃ and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) within a young biomass burning smoke plume from the Williams prescribed fire in chaparral, which was sampled over …

An Approach To An Agave Problem: The Bioremediation Of Agricultural Waste By Yeast Fermentations, Joshua Michael Jarodsky

Theses and Dissertations

The agricultural waste products created by industries, such as the Tequila manufacturing industry, create thousands of tons of waste material every year. This agricultural waste often becomes an environmental and ecological problem for fields and surrounding areas. The purpose of this study is to determine the potential of using the yeast Kluyveromyces marxianus 7-1 and Kluyveromyces marxianus 8-1 to ferment the leaf waste from the harvesting of the Agave tequilana as a form of bioremediation. Fermentations (anaerobic, under constant shaking, and at room temperature) were monitored for colony forming units, pH of fermentation broth, concentration of reducing sugars, and protein …

Isquest: Finding Insertion Sequences In Prokaryotic Sequence Fragment Data, Abhishek Biswas, David T. Gauthier, Desh Ranjan, Mohammad Zubair

Computer Science Faculty Publications

Motivation: Insertion sequences (ISs) are transposable elements present in most bacterial and archaeal genomes that play an important role in genomic evolution. The increasing availability of sequenced prokaryotic genomes offers the opportunity to study ISs comprehensively, but development of efficient and accurate tools is required for discovery and annotation. Additionally, prokaryotic genomes are frequently deposited as incomplete, or draft stage because of the substantial cost and effort required to finish genome assembly projects. Development of methods to identify IS directly from raw sequence reads or draft genomes are therefore desirable. Software tools such as Optimized Annotation System for Insertion Sequences …

A Study Of Allylic Aminations As Catalyzed By Heterobimetallic Pd-Ti Complexes, Diana Lauren Ellis

Theses and Dissertations

Heterobimetallic complexes present a unique approach to catalyzing challenging reactions. By having two metals in close proximity to each other, the metals are able to interact and alter their electronics in a way that simple organic ligands (carbon, nitrogen, sulfur etc.) cannot. Our studies of heterobimetallic complexes focus on a Pd–Ti complex. The complex features a dative interaction between the palladium and the titanium held together by a phosphonamide scaffold. This interaction increases the electrophilicity of the palladium and makes it a very suitable catalyst for allylic amination reactions. We have conducted extensive studies of this catalyst in allylic aminations, …

Revealing Important Nocturnal And Day-To-Day Variations In Fire Smoke Emissions Through A Multiplatform Inversion, Pablo E. Saide, David A. Peterson, Arlindo Da Silva, Bruce Anderson, Luke D. Ziemba, Glenn Diskin, Glen Sachse, Johnathan Hair, Carolyn Butler, Marta Fenn, Jose L. Jimenez, Pedro Campuzano-Jost, Anne E. Perring, Joshua P. Schwarz, Milos Z. Markovic, Phil Russell, Jens Redemann, Yohei Shinozuka, David G. Streets, Fang Yan, Jack Dibb, Robert Yokelson, O. Brian Toon, Edward Hyer, Gregory R. Carmichael

Chemistry and Biochemistry Faculty Publications

We couple airborne, ground-based, and satellite observations; conduct regional simulations; and develop and apply an inversion technique to constrain hourly smoke emissions from the Rim Fire, the third largest observed in California, USA. Emissions constrainedwithmultiplatform data show notable nocturnal enhancements (sometimes over a factor of 20), correlate better with daily burned area data, and are a factor of 2–4 higher than a priori estimates, highlighting the need for improved characterization of diurnal profiles and day-to-day variability when modeling extreme fires. Constraining only with satellite data results in smaller enhancements mainly due to missing retrievals near the emissions source, suggesting that …

The Use Of Shape Memory Polymers As A Tool To Study Human Fibrosarcoma And Murine Mesenchymal Stem Cell Migration, Justin N. Elkhechen

Renée Crown University Honors Thesis Projects - All

Shape memory polymers (SMPs) are a class of “smart” materials that can transform between two distinct conformations through external stimuli, such as heat or electricity. Their usage in bioengineering has led to a promising field of research that lies at the interface of cell and mechanobiology, potentially providing insight into cancer therapies and tissue development—two processes that exist in dynamic environments in vivo. The present work involves creating new, shape changing, scaffolds for studies to analyze cell migration upon changes to the environmental topography. Specifically, this Capstone has been primarily focused on the development of a “half and half” fibrous …

Investigations Into The Molecular Mechanisms Of Bacterial Pathogen–Host Interactions: Construction Of A Dual Plasmid System For Incorporation Of Unnatural Amino Acids Into Pseudomonas Syringae Pv. Tomato Dc3000, Scotty D. Raber

Department of Chemistry: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

A dual plasmid system for the incorporation of unnatural amino acids into plant pathogen, Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000, has been designed. This invention is expected to allow (a) mutations of proteins synthesized by the bacterium, P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000, that can capture molecular targets, especially for such modified proteins secreted by the phytopathogen into the host plant cells of A. thaliana and S. lycopersicum, (b) expression of biological probes in the bacterial species to monitor changes in redox, nutritional, and other small molecule states over pre-, post- and in situ disease stages, and secretion of such biological …

Development, Validation, And Application Of Analytical Methods For Characterizing Adsorbed Protein Orientation, Conformation, And Bioactivity, Aby Thyparambil

All Dissertations

The structure and bioactivity of adsorbed proteins are tightly interrelated and play a key role in their interaction with the surrounding environment. These factors are of critical importance in many biotechnological applications. However, because the bioactive state of an adsorbed protein is a function of the orientation, conformation, and accessibility of its bioactive site(s), the isolated determination of just one or two of these factors will typically not be sufficient to understand the structure-function relationships of the adsorbed layer. Rather a combination of methods is needed to address each of these factors in a synergistic manner to provide a complementary …