Ornithology Commons^™

Increased Neural Activity In The Bed Nucleus Of The Stria Terminalis Of Uninfected Canaries After Observation Of Infected Conspecifics, Madeleine Chang, Sophia Santangelo, Devon Comito, Bennett Hardy, Patricia C. Lopes

Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Sciences Faculty Articles and Research

Recent evidence suggests that the immune system may be upregulated in anticipation of pathogen exposure, yet the neural mechanisms that respond to and signal impending infection risk remain poorly understood. We investigated neural responses to infection risk in uninfected hosts observing infected conspecifics, using the canary (Serinus canaria domestica)—Mycoplasma gallisepticum host–parasite system. We focused on five brain regions of interest, comprising three nodes of the social decision-making network—preoptic area, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) and hippocampus—a stress modulatory region (paraventricular nucleus) and a visual processing region (nucleus rotundus). After 1 h of observing infected canaries, …

Avian Symbionts Of Sulawesi: Identifying And Correlating Malaria Parasites And The Microbiome In Communities Of Endemic Avian Hosts, Rachael Joakim

Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects

Since the evolution of complex organisms, there have been communities of symbionts inhabiting them. Thanks to the development of parallel sequencing techniques, DNA of entire microbial communities can be sequenced from a single sample. Some microbes can be parasitic in nature, such as Haemosporida, an order of eukaryotes causing malaria. While most symbionts form a more commensal host relationship in wild systems, host-symbiont dynamics can vary in pathogenicity based on biotic and abiotic factors. In vertebrates, microbial communities in the gut play a major role in host function, including immune responses to Haemosporida. Though this relationship is most commonly explored …

Rapid Point-Of-Care Testing For Detection Of Antibodies To Toxoplasma Gondii In Black Vultures And Ring-Billed Gulls From Pennsylvania, Alexa Rosypal Von Dohlen, Sydney Randall, Jordyan Grays, Mark A. Dugo, Brian J. Hunt, Justin Brown, Kyle Van Why, Sawsan Ammar, Richard Gerhold

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic protozoan parasite that infects most warm-blooded animals, including birds. Scavenging birds are epidemiologically important hosts because they can serve as indicators of environmental T. gondii levels. A rapid point-of-care (POC) test that detects antibodies to T. gondii in humans is commercially available. In this research, we assessed the ability of the human POC test to detect anti–T. gondii antibodies in 106 black vultures (Coragyps atratus) and 23 ring-billed gulls (Larus delawarensis) from Pennsylvania, USA. Serum samples were tested with the POC test and compared to the modified …

Migration-Associated Variation In Blood Parasitism, Body Condition, And Stress In Gambel’S White-Crowned Sparrows (Zonotrichia Leucophrys Gambelii), Julianna Deibel

Scripps Senior Theses

Migration is a widespread behavior in animals which both causes and is motivated by fluctuations in nutrient availability. Migration is ecologically important, as it connects areas of differing primary productivities and carries pathogens over distance. The relationship between migration and disease is complex, sensitive to anthropogenic disturbance, and influenced by ecological cycles as well as host, vector and parasite life cycles. Four central migration-infection mechanisms have been proposed: migratory susceptibility, migratory exposure, migratory escape, and migratory culling. These mechanisms may yield increased or decreased infection post-migration, based on migration’s physiological tax and the concentration of pathogens along migratory pathways.

To …

A Mathematical Model Of Acanthocephalan Parasite Infection In Gull-Billed Terns, Charlotte Moser

Annual Symposium on Biomathematics and Ecology Education and Research

No abstract provided.

The Effect Of Infection Risk On Female Blood Transcriptomics, Brenna M. G. Gormally, Patricia C. Lopes

Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Sciences Faculty Articles and Research

Defenses against pathogens can take on many forms. For instance, behavioral avoidance of diseased conspecifics is widely documented. Interactions with these infectious conspecifics can also, however, lead to physiological changes in uninfected animals, an effect that is much less well understood. These changes in behavior and physiology are particularly important to study in a reproductive context, where they can impact reproductive decisions and offspring quality. Here, we studied how an acute (3 h) exposure to an immune-challenged male affected female blood transcriptomics and behavior. We predicted that females paired with immune-challenged males would reduce eating and drinking behaviors (as avoidance …

Great-Tailed Grackles (Quiscalus Mexicanus) As A Tolerant Host Of Avian Malaria Parasites, M. Andreína Pacheco, Francisco C. Ferreira, Corina J. Logan, Kelsey B. Mccune, Maggie P. Macpherson, Sergio Albino Miranda, Diego Santiago-Alarcon, Ananias A. Escalante

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Library Materials

Great-tailed Grackles (Quiscalus mexicanus) are a social, polygamous bird species whose populations have rapidly expanded their geographic range across North America over the past century. Before 1865, Great-tailed Grackles were only documented in Central America, Mexico, and southern Texas in the USA. Given the rapid northern expansion of this species, it is relevant to study its role in the dynamics of avian blood parasites. Here, 87 Great-tailed grackles in Arizona (a population in the new center of the range) were screened for haemosporidian parasites using microscopy and PCR targeting the parasite mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Individuals were caught …

An Ecological And Physiological Assessment Of Feather Mite-Bird Symbioses, Kevin James Krajcir

Student Theses and Dissertations

Feather mites are ectosymbiotic arthropods that reside primarily on the wing and tail feathers of most birds. Despite our growing understanding of feather mite biology, previous studies of the nature of the feather mite-avian host relationship report mutualism, parasitism, and commensalism. Such inconsistencies are likely due to narrow study designs that fail to capture the possibility of context dependency in this interaction. To provide some clarity surrounding the nature of this symbiotic system, we explored how geographical, climatic, and ecological contexts relate to variation in feather mite abundance and how that abundance, consequently, associates with multiple metrics of host condition …

Maternal Responses In The Face Of Infection Risk, Patricia C. Lopes, Brenna M. G. Gormally, Aubrey Emmi, Delilah Schuerman, Chathuni Liyanage, Ursula K. Beattie, L. Michael Romero

Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Sciences Faculty Articles and Research

When animals are sick, their physiology and behavior change in ways that can impact their offspring. Research is emerging showing that infection risk alone can also modify the physiology and behavior of healthy animals. If physiological responses to environments with high infection risk take place during reproduction, it is possible that they lead to maternal effects. Understanding whether and how high infection risk triggers maternal effects is important to elucidate how the impacts of infectious agents extend beyond infected individuals and how, in this way, they are even stronger evolutionary forces than already considered. Here, to evaluate the effects of …

Female Presence Does Not Increase Testosterone But Still Ameliorates Sickness Behaviours In Male Japanese Quail, Brenna M. G. Gormally, Kaelyn Bridgette, Aubrey Emmi, Delilah Schuerman, Patricia C. Lopes

Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Sciences Faculty Articles and Research

Infections can dramatically modify animal behaviour. The extent of these changes depends on an animal's environment. It has been proposed that testosterone modulates the suppression of behavioural symptoms of sickness under certain reproductive contexts. To further understand the role played by testosterone in modulating sickness behaviours under reproductive contexts, we studied a species, the Japanese quail, in which female exposure rapidly decreases circulating testosterone in males. Males received either an immune challenge (lipopolysaccharide – LPS) or a control injection and their behaviours, mass change and testosterone levels were quantified in the presence or absence of a female. Both the presence …

Diversity Of Tetrabothriidae (Eucestoda) Among Holarctic Alcidae (Charadriiformes): Resolution Of The Tetrabothrius Jagerskioeldi Cryptic Species Complex: Cestodes Of Alcinae—Provides Insights On The Dynamic Nature Of Tapeworm And Marine Bird Faunas Under The Stockholm Paradigm, Eric P. Hoberg, Kaylen Marie Soudachanh

MANTER: Journal of Parasite Biodiversity

We begin resolution of the Tetrabothrius jagerskioeldi–species complex with descriptions of Tetrabothrius alcae n. sp. based on numerous specimens, primarily in murres (species of Uria), from the greater North Pacific basin and Tetrabothrius sinistralis n. sp. based on cestodes in guillemots (species of Cepphus) from the central Bering Sea and West Greenland. These tetrabothriids are characterized, among 44 species of Tetrabothrius in avian hosts, by attributes of the scolex, male and female organ systems, structure and dimensions of the vitelline gland, numbers of testes, configuration of the genital atrium, genital papillae and the male and female atrial …

The Endangered California Condor (Gymnogyps Californianus) Population Is Exposed To Local Haemosporidian Parasites, M. Andreína Pacheco, Chris N. Parish, Timothy J. Hauck, Roberto F. Aguilar, Ananias A. Escalante

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Library Materials

The endangered California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) is the largest New World Vulture in North America. Despite recovery program success in saving the species from extinction, condors remain compromised by lead poisoning and limited genetic diversity. The latter makes this species especially vulnerable to infectious diseases. Thus, taking advantage of the program of blood lead testing in Arizona, condor blood samples from 2008 to 2018 were screened for haemosporidian parasites using a nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocol that targets the parasite mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Plasmodium homopolare (Family Plasmodiidae, Order Haemosporida, Phylum Apicomplexa), was detected in condors captured …

Insights About Diversity Of Tetrabothriidae (Eucestoda) Among Holarctic Alcidae (Charadriiformes): What Is Tetrabothrius Jagerskioeldi?, Eric P. Hoberg, Kaylen Marie Soudachanh

MANTER: Journal of Parasite Biodiversity

Tetrabothriid cestodes are characteristic helminths that infect species of seabirds globally. We begin with the exploration of the diversity of tapeworms of the genus Tetrabothrius Rudolphi, 1819 (Eucestoda: Tetrabothriidae), some of which are distributed among seabirds of the family Alcidae (Charadriiformes) at boreal to higher latitudes of Holarctic seas. During the course of 2 decades of field inventory from 1975 through the early 1990s (in addition to earlier collections assembled by Robert L. Rausch and colleagues in Alaska initiated in the late 1940s), an extensive series of tapeworm specimens attributable to species of Tetrabothrius was recovered from seabirds across the …

Knemidokoptes Mites And Their Effects On The Gripping Position Of Steller’S Jay Feet, Wade M. Burris

Cal Poly Humboldt theses and projects

Steller’s jays (Cyanocitta stelleri) with swollen legs and feet resembling the signs of scaly leg have been commonly seen around Arcata, California, USA. These signs are thought to be caused by knemidokoptic mites, a group of parasites specialized at exploiting a range of avian hosts. I compared the gripping position in the feet of jays with variable signs of this condition as an index of their ability to perch, confirmed the presence of mites and identified them to the nearest species using genetic analysis, and compared the relatedness of the cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene between mites …

Blood Parasites Infecting The Hoatzin (Opisthocomus Hoazin), A Unique Neotropical Folivorous Bird, M. Andreína Pacheco, M. Alexandra García-Amado, Jaime Manzano, Nubia E. Matta, Ananias A. Escalante

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Library Materials

The Hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) is the only extant member of the order Opisthocomiformes. This unique South American bird lives in the riparian lowland vegetation characteristic of the Amazon and Orinoco basins. Hoatzins nest in communal social units close to water bodies; they are strictly folivores being the only bird with pregastric fermentation in the crop. Because of the complex logistics involved in capturing this bird, there is a knowledge gap on its parasites. This study documents two distant lineages of haemosporidian parasites (Plasmodium spp.) in a juvenile and two adults sampled in the Cojedes state, Venezuela. Although …

Transcriptomic Response To Immune Challenge In Zebra Finch (Taeniopygia Guttata) Using Rna-Seq, Cassandra Scalf

Masters Theses & Specialist Projects

Despite the convergence of rapid technological advances in genomics and the maturing field of ecoimmunology, our understanding of the genes that regulate immunity in wild populations is still nascent. Previous work to assess immune function has relied upon relatively crude measures of immunocompetence. However, with next-generation RNA-sequencing, it is now possible to create a profile of gene expression in response to an immune challenge. In this study, captive zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata; adult males) were challenged with bacterial lipopolysaccharide (2 mg/Kg BW; dissolved in 0.9% saline) or vehicle (0.9% saline) to stimulate the immune system. Two hours after injection, birds …

Do Avian Blood Parasites Influence Hypoxia Physiology In A High Elevation Environment?, Farah Ishtiaq, Sahas Barve

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

BACKGROUND: Montane birds which engage in elevational movements have evolved to cope with fluctuations in environmental hypoxia, through changes in physiological parameters associated with blood oxygen-carrying capacity such as haemoglobin concentration (Hb) and haematocrit (Hct). In particular, elevational migrants which winter at low elevations, encounter varying intensities of avian haemosporidian parasites as they traverse heterogeneous environments. Whilst high intensity parasite infections lead to anaemia, one can expect that the ability to cope with haemosporidian infections should be a key trait for elevational migrants that must be balanced against reducing the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood in response to high elevation. In …

Mode And Rate Of Evolution Of Haemosporidian Mitochondrial Genomes: Timing The Radiation Of Avian Parasites, M. Andreína Pacheco, Nubia E. Matta, Gediminas Valkiūnas, Patricia G. Parker, Beatriz Mello, Craig E. Stanley Jr., Miguel Lentino, Maria Alexandra Garcia-Amado, Michael Cranfield, Sergei L. Kosakovsky Pond, Ananias A. Escalante

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Library Materials

Haemosporidians are a diverse group of vector-borne parasitic protozoa that includes the agents of human malaria; however, most of the described species are found in birds and reptiles. Although our understanding of these parasites’ diversity has expanded by analyses of their mitochondrial genes, there is limited information on these genes’ evolutionary rates. Here, 114 mitochondrial genomes (mtDNA) were studied from species belonging to four genera: Leucocytozoon, Haemoproteus, Hepatocystis, and Plasmodium. Contrary to previous assertions, the mtDNA is phylogenetically informative. The inferred phylogeny showed that, like the genus Plasmodium, the Leucocytozoon and Haemoproteus genera are not monophyletic groups. Although …

Ecological And Evolutionary Relationships Between Feather Mites And Parulid Warblers, Alix Elizabeth Matthews

Student Theses and Dissertations

Host-symbiont relationships are ubiquitous in nature, yet the evolutionary and ecological processes that have shaped these intricate associations are not well understood. Here, I explored the complex symbiosis between feather mites and their warbler hosts. I first considered how ecological context may influence feather mite abundance on two ecologically dissimilar warbler species, and how feather mite abundance may in turn influence the current reproduction and annual survival of hosts. Ecological context of hosts does play a role in feather mite abundance, and even though current reproduction may not be influenced by feather mite abundance, annual survival may be at a …

Der Mönchsgeier Aegypius Monachus (L., 1766) Und Seine Mallophagen (Insecta, Phthiraptera) In Der Mongolei = Cinereous Vulture Aegypius Monachus (L., 1766) And Its Chewing Lice (Insecta, Phthiraptera) In Mongolia, Eberhard Mey, Michael Stubbe, Davaa Lchagvasuren, Annegret Stubbe

Erforschung biologischer Ressourcen der Mongolei / Exploration into the Biological Resources of Mongolia, ISSN 0440-1298

During a series of studies on the population, ecology, and biology of the Cinereous Vulture in Mongolia, fully feathered nestlings of the species from 9 nests were examined, without the use of chemical methods, for Mallophaga infestation from 2010 to 2015. The collection resulted in several first records for Mongolia of three species: Laemobothrion vulturis (J. C. FABRICIUS, 1775) sensu lato (Amblycera, Laemobothriidae), Neocolpocephalum aegypii (TENDEIRO, 1989) (Amblycera, Menoponidae s. l.) sp. inq., and Falcolipeurus quadripustulatus (BURMEISTER, 1838) (Ischnocera, Philopteridae s. l.). Despite being expected, there has still been no record of Agypoecus brevicollis (BURMEISTER, 1838) in Mongolia.

Chewing louse …

A New Feather Mite Species Of The Genus Trouessartia Canestrini (Acariformes: Trouessartiidae) From The Northern Rough-Winged Swallow Stelgidopteryx Serripennis (Passeriformes: Hirundinidae) In Pennsylvania, S. V. Mironov, R. M. Overstreet

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

A new feather mite species, Trouessartia stelgidopteryx sp. n. (Astigmata: Trouessartiidae), is described from the Northern rough-winged swallow Stelgidopteryx serripennis Newton (Passeriformes: Hirundinidae) in Pennsylvania, USA. The new species is close to the minutipes species group and differs from its representatives and all other known species of the genus Trouessartia in having a unique combination of features in males: the opisthosomal lobes are much longer than wide, they are separated by a large semi-ovate terminal cleft, and their lobar apices bear semi-ovate terminal lamellae with a smooth margin.

Ectoparasitism Shortens The Breeding Season In A Colonial Bird, Charles R. Brown, Mary Bomberger Brown

School of Natural Resources: Faculty Publications

When blood-feeding parasites increase seasonally, their deleterious effects may prevent some host species, especially those living in large groups where parasites are numerous, from reproducing later in the summer. Yet the role of parasites in regulating the length of a host’s breeding season—and thus the host’s opportunity for multiple brooding—has not been systematically investigated. The highly colonial cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota), a temperate-latitude migratory songbird in the western Great Plains, USA, typically has a relatively short (eight to nine week) breeding season, with birds rarely nesting late in the summer. Colonies at which ectoparasitic swallow bugs (Oeciacus vicarius) were experimentally …

Air Sac Nematode Monopetalonema Alcedinis In A Belted Kingfisher (Megaceryle Alcyon) In Maryland, Usa, Ellen Bronson, Kathleen Kelly, Eric P. Hoberg

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Faculty Publications

Sporadic and geographically widespread reports of parasites affecting the Belted Kingfisher (Megaceryle alcyon) have been published but few have described details of the pathology. A female, adult kingfisher was found dead in a heavily wooded area of a zoo in Maryland, USA. At necropsy, numerous sexually dimorphic, 4.4–40.5-cm adult Monopetalonema alcedinis nematodes were found tightly wound within the coelomic cavity between organs and completely filling the caudal thoracic and abdominal air sacs. Abundant, 30–60-mm diameter, larvated, thick-walled ova were found in the bronchi and parabronchi, within the mesentery, and in the serosa of multiple coelomic organs. Monopetalonema alcedinis …

Cues Used By The Black Fly, Simulium Annulus, For Attraction To The Common Loon (Gavia Immer), Meggin L. Weinandt, Michael W. Meyer, R. Mac Strand, Alec R. Lindsay Ph. D.

Faculty Works

The parasitic relationship between a black fly, Simulium annulus, and the common loon (Gavia immer) has been considered one of the most exclusive relationships between any host species and a black fly species. To test the host specificity of this blood-feeding insect, we made a series of bird decoy presentations to black flies on loon-inhabited lakes in northern Wisconsin, U.S.A. To examine the importance of chemical and visual cues for black fly detection of and attraction to hosts, we made decoy presentations with and without chemical cues. Flies attracted to the decoys were collected, identified to species, and quantified. Results …

Isolation By Distance Explains Genetic Structure Of Buggy Creek Virus, A Bird-Associated Arbovirus, Abinash Padhi, Amy T. Moore, Mary Bomberger Brown, Jerome E. Foster, Martin Pfeffer, Charles R. Brown

School of Natural Resources: Faculty Publications

Many of the arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) show extensive genetic variability and are widely distributed over large geographic areas. Understanding how virus genetic structure varies in space may yield insight into how these pathogens are adapted to and dispersed by different hosts or vectors, the relative importance of mutation, drift, or selection in generating genetic variability, and where and when epidemics or epizootics are most likely to occur. However, because most arboviruses tend to be sampled opportunistically and often cannot be isolated in large numbers at a given locale, surprisingly little is known about their spatial genetic structure on the local …

Winter Ecology Of Buggy Creek Virus (Togaviridae, Alphavirus) In The Central Great Plains, Charles R. Brown, Stephanie A. Strickler, Amy T. Moore, Sarah A. Knutie, Abinash Padhi, Mary Bomberger Brown, Ginger R. Young, Valerie A. O'Brien, Jerome E. Foster, Nicholas Komar

School of Natural Resources: Faculty Publications

A largely unanswered question in the study of arboviruses is the extent to which virus can overwinter in adult vectors during the cold winter months and resume the transmission cycle in summer. Buggy Creek virus (BCRV; Togaviridae, Alphavirus) is an unusual arbovirus that is vectored primarily by the swallow bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae: Oeciacus vicarius) and amplified by the ectoparasitic bug’s main avian hosts, the migratory cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) and resident house sparrow (Passer domesticus). Bugs are sedentary and overwinter in the swallows’ mud nests. We evaluated the prevalence of BCRV and extent of …

How Birds Combat Ectoparasites, Dale H. Clayton, Jennifer A. H. Koop, Christopher W. Harbison, Brett R. Moyer, Sarah E. Bush

Harold W. Manter Laboratory of Parasitology: Library Materials

Birds are plagued by an impressive diversity of ectoparasites, ranging from feather-feeding lice, to feather-degrading bacteria. Many of these ectoparasites have severe negative effects on host fitness. It is therefore not surprising that selection on birds has favored a variety of possible adaptations for dealing with ectoparasites. The functional significance of some of these defenses has been well documented. Others have barely been studied, much less tested rigorously. In this article we review the evidence--or lack thereof--for many of the purported mechanisms birds have for dealing with ectoparasites. We concentrate on features of the plumage and its components, as well …

Experimental Inoculation Of House Sparrows (Passer Domesticus) With Buggy Creek Virus, Kathryn P. Huyvaert, Amy T. Moore, Nicholas A. Panella, Eric A. Edwards, Mary Bomberger Brown, Nicholas Komar, Charles R. Brown

School of Natural Resources: Faculty Publications

We performed experimental inoculations of house sparrows (Passer domesticus) with Buggy Creek virus (BCRV), a poorly known alphavirus (Togaviridae) vectored primarily by the swallow bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae: Oeciacus vicarius) that is an ectoparasite of the cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) and house sparrow. Viremias were detected by plaque assay in two of six birds on days 1–3 postinoculation; viremia was highest on day 2. Viral RNA was detected by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in blood of six of 12 birds ranging from day 1 to day 15 postinoculation. Infectious BCRV was detected in …

Bird Movement Predicts Buggy Creek Virus Infection In Insect Vectors, Charles R. Brown, Mary Bomberger Brown, Amy T. Moore, Nicholas Komar

School of Natural Resources: Faculty Publications

Predicting the spatial foci of zoonotic diseases is a major challenge for epidemiologists and disease ecologists. Migratory birds are often thought to be responsible for introducing some aviozoonotic pathogens such as West Nile and avian influenza viruses to a local area, but most information on how bird movement correlates with virus prevalence is anecdotal or indirect. We report that the prevalence of Buggy Creek virus (BCRV) infection in cimicid swallow bugs (Oeciacus vicarius), the principal invertebrate vector for this virus, was directly associated with the likelihood of movement by cliff swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota), an amplifying host …

Ecological Correlates Of Buggy Creek Virus Infection In Oeciacus Vicarius, Southwestern Nebraska, 2004, Amy T. Moore, Eric A. Edwards, Mary Bomberger Brown, Nicholas Komar, Charles R. Brown

School of Natural Resources: Faculty Publications

Buggy Creek virus (family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus, BCRV) is an alphavirus within the western equine encephalitis virus complex whose primary vector is the swallow bug, Oeciacus vicarius Horvath (Hemiptera: Cimicidae), an ectoparasite of the colonially nesting cliff swallow, Petrochelidon pyrrhonota, that is also a frequent host for the virus.We investigated ecological correlates of BCRV infection in 100-bug pools at 14 different swallow colony sites in southwestern Nebraska from summer 2004, by using plaque assay on Vero cells to identify cytopathic virus and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction to identify noncytopathic viral RNA. We found 26.7% of swallow bug pools …