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2014

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Articles 481 - 510 of 1049

Full-Text Articles in Animal Sciences

Biological Synopsis Of Australian Herring (Arripis Georgianus), Kimberley A. Smith, Joshua Brown Feb 2014

Biological Synopsis Of Australian Herring (Arripis Georgianus), Kimberley A. Smith, Joshua Brown

Fisheries Research Reports

Arripis georgianus (‘Australian herring’) is targeted by commercial and recreational fishers in Western Australia (WA) and South Australia (SA). Historically, A. georgianus has been the most commonly retained species of finfish taken by shore- and boat-based recreational fishers in the West Coast Bioregion (WCB) and South Coast Bioregion (SCB) (Smith et al. 2013a) (Fig. 1). The species is harvested by several commercial fisheries which use shore-based netting methods (beach seine, haul and gill nets). Historically, the vast majority of the commercial fishery catch has been taken by the herring ‘trap net’ fishery which operates on various beaches near Albany (SCB).

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Temperature, Hypoxia, And Mycobacteriosis: Effects On Adult Striped Bass Morone Saxatilis Metabolic Performance, Dominique Lapointe, Wolfgang K. Vogelbein, Mary C. Fabrizio, David T. Gauthier, Richard W. Brill Feb 2014

Temperature, Hypoxia, And Mycobacteriosis: Effects On Adult Striped Bass Morone Saxatilis Metabolic Performance, Dominique Lapointe, Wolfgang K. Vogelbein, Mary C. Fabrizio, David T. Gauthier, Richard W. Brill

Biological Sciences Faculty Publications

Mycobacteriosis, a chronic bacterial disease of fishes, is prevalent in adult striped bass from Chesapeake Bay (USA). Although environmental factors may play a role in disease expression, the interaction between the disease and environmental stress remains unexplored. We therefore examined the individual and interactive effects of elevated temperature, hypoxia, and mycobacteriosis on the metabolism of wild-caught adult striped bass from Chesapeake Bay using respirometry. Because the spleen is the primary target organ of mycobacteriosis in striped bass, we hypothesized that the disease interferes with the ability of fish to increase their hemato crit in the face of increasing oxygen demands. …

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Disease And Predation: Sorting Out Causes Of A Bighorn Sheep (Ovis Canadensis) Decline, Joshua B. Smith, Jonathan A. Jenks, Troy Grovenburg, Robert W. Klaver Feb 2014

Disease And Predation: Sorting Out Causes Of A Bighorn Sheep (Ovis Canadensis) Decline, Joshua B. Smith, Jonathan A. Jenks, Troy Grovenburg, Robert W. Klaver

Natural Resource Management Faculty Publications

Estimating survival and documenting causes and timing of mortality events in neonate bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) improves understanding of population ecology and factors influencing recruitment. During 2010–2012, we captured and radiocollared 74 neonates in the Black Hills, South Dakota, of which 95% (70) died before 52 weeks of age. Pneumonia (36%) was the leading cause of mortality followed by predation (30%). We used known fate analysis in Program MARK to estimate weekly survival rates and investigate the influence of intrinsic variables on 52-week survival. Model {S1 wk, 2–8 wks, .8 wks} had the lowest AICc (Akaike’s Information Criterion corrected for …

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Systematics And Genetic Variation Among The Cryptic Sub-Species Complex Of Two- Lined Salamanders Eurycea Bislineata, Eric Swenson, Dr. Keith Crandall Jan 2014

Systematics And Genetic Variation Among The Cryptic Sub-Species Complex Of Two- Lined Salamanders Eurycea Bislineata, Eric Swenson, Dr. Keith Crandall

Journal of Undergraduate Research

DNA sequence analysis can be a very powerful tool to examine the evolutionary history of many different species of organisms. One of the most useful benefits is determining species lineage and evolutionary relationships. In this study we attempted to examine the phylogenetic relationship of Eurycea bislineata, an east coast salamander by examining the Cytochrome b, and ND4 gene regions of the mitochondrial DNA genome.

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Species Boundaries In The Gymnodactylus Darwinii Complex (Reptilia, Squamata), Aaron N. Waite, Dr. Jack W. Sites Jr. Jan 2014

Species Boundaries In The Gymnodactylus Darwinii Complex (Reptilia, Squamata), Aaron N. Waite, Dr. Jack W. Sites Jr.

Journal of Undergraduate Research

The genus Gymnodactylus is a group of small lizards belonging to the family Gekkonidae, which occur in the east and central areas of Brazil. The species G. darwinii is restricted to the Atlantic Forest and ranges from the northeastern state of Bahia south 1500 miles along the coast to the northern region of the southeastern state of São Paulo.

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Jak/Stat Pathway Utilized By Adrenal Cells In Response To Il-6, Brice Jason Williams, Dr. Allan M. Judd Jan 2014

Jak/Stat Pathway Utilized By Adrenal Cells In Response To Il-6, Brice Jason Williams, Dr. Allan M. Judd

Journal of Undergraduate Research

In most mammals, the adrenal cortex produces the hormones cortisol, aldosterone, and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). These hormones have profound effects upon water and salt balance, the inflammatory response, and the metabolism of sugars, fats, and proteins. Because of its importance in maintaining homeostasis, the body highly regulates the adrenal gland. As part of the regulation, the body secretes many different molecules including cytokines. One of the most researched cytokines is interleukin-6, IL-6 (1). Many different cells produce IL-6, including adrenal cortical cells (2). The adrenal cortical cells secrete IL-6 into the extracellular space. IL-6 then binds to its receptor (IL-6 receptor …

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Locating Chondrocyte-Specific Enhancer Elements In The First Intronic Region Of The Col11a2 Gene, Steven Alan Smith, Dr. Laura Bridgewater Jan 2014

Locating Chondrocyte-Specific Enhancer Elements In The First Intronic Region Of The Col11a2 Gene, Steven Alan Smith, Dr. Laura Bridgewater

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Osteoarthritis is one of most prominent illnesses that plague our world today. It involves the degeneration of cartilage between joints due to a reduction of collagen fibrils. The type XI collagen gene (Col11a2) is one of a few genes responsible for the production of the collagen fibrils. It is expressed wherever cartilage is present. It is expressed in these areas because of specific expression factors (proteins) that enhance the production of collagen. Once these expression factors are known, a possible genetic remedy can be manufactured to aide in curing osteoarthritis or other skeletal abnormalities.

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Effects Of Dietary Phytoestrogens On Calcium-Binding Proteins And Cox- 2 In The Frontal Cortex Of Adult Rats, Lilyan Yi Tian, Dr. Edwin Lephart Jan 2014

Effects Of Dietary Phytoestrogens On Calcium-Binding Proteins And Cox- 2 In The Frontal Cortex Of Adult Rats, Lilyan Yi Tian, Dr. Edwin Lephart

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Phytoestrogens are estrogen-like molecules found in many plants (that have a diphenolic, non-steroidal structure), such as, fruits, vegetables, legumes, whole-grain and especially soy products. These plant estrogen mimic the ability to selectively bind estrogen receptors and have recently received a great deal of investigative attention due to the potential protective effects against age-related diseases (e.g., cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis) as well as hormone-dependent cancers (i.e., breast and prostate cancer). At this time, however, little is known about the effects phytoestrogens have on the central nervous system (CNS).

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The Separation Of Suspected Subspecies Of Cutthroat Trout Using Mitochondrial Dna Sequences, Becky A. Shiozawa, R. Paul Evans Jan 2014

The Separation Of Suspected Subspecies Of Cutthroat Trout Using Mitochondrial Dna Sequences, Becky A. Shiozawa, R. Paul Evans

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Current mitochondrial DNA techniques using restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) are still unsuccessful in determining phylogenetic relationships between subspecies of cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki), such as the relationships between Snake River finespot cutthroat trout and Yellowstone cutthroat trout, Bear River Bonneville cutthroat trout and Yellowstone cutthroat trout, and Lahontan cutthroat trout and its subspecies. Due to these groups distinct geological or ecological separation and the relatively rapid rate of mtDNA evolution, it is likely distinctive markers exist for these subspecies within mtDNA. Identification of such markers would be valuable for identification and future research on the subspecies.

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Examination Of Ap-4 As A Transcriptional Activator Of The Col11a2 Chondrocyte-Specific Enhancer Elements, Todd Lincoln Jackson, Dr. Laura Bridgewater Jan 2014

Examination Of Ap-4 As A Transcriptional Activator Of The Col11a2 Chondrocyte-Specific Enhancer Elements, Todd Lincoln Jackson, Dr. Laura Bridgewater

Journal of Undergraduate Research

My purpose is to explore activator protein 4’s (AP-4) role in the expression of the Col11a2 gene. My hypothesis is that AP-4 will bind to the Col11a2 enhancer elements and increase activity of that gene. AP-4 is a ubiquitous transcription factor. Transcription factors are proteins that help regulate cell differentiation and proliferation by binding to enhancer sites to promote or inhibit gene expression. Previous work has shown that the mouse Col11a2 gene contains at least three enhancer sites namely; ABC, DE, and FG [1,2]. Each sequence of the enhancer sites was put through two computer databases of known transcription factors …

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The Specific Binding Of Protein’S To The Abc, Fg, And De Enhancer Elements Of The Col11a2 Gene, Kristopher Bennion, Dr. Laura Bridgewater Jan 2014

The Specific Binding Of Protein’S To The Abc, Fg, And De Enhancer Elements Of The Col11a2 Gene, Kristopher Bennion, Dr. Laura Bridgewater

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Gene therapy is extensively being studied in many labs for the potential treatment of such disorders as arthritis, cancer, diabetes, and other such disabling diseases. Researchers in Dr. Bridgewater’s lab have been studying the Col11a2 gene in hopes of future treatment of such disorders as cleft palate, dwarfism, and several forms of arthritis. Two years ago we confirmed and established that ABC, DE, and FG were indeed acting as enhancer elements for the Col11a2 gene through various mutations to these specific regions of the gene. These findings have led the lab to do research in the development of a “super …

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Dppg Susceptibility To Human Group X Phospholipase A2, Katrina Behling, Dr. John D. Bell Jan 2014

Dppg Susceptibility To Human Group X Phospholipase A2, Katrina Behling, Dr. John D. Bell

Journal of Undergraduate Research

There are eight known isoforms of the mammalian secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2). One of these, the recently discovered human group X sPLA2 (hGX), when added to adherent cells, has the ability to cleave the second fatty acid side chain of phospholipids, thereby producing arachidonic acid. Other isozymes, when added in a similar manner, do not release arachidonic acid unless the cells have become non-adherent, or are first treated with chemicals that increase intracellular calcium levels such as ionomycin, lysolecithin, or thionin. Originally, we were interested in whether hGX would respond with increased enzymatic activity, as do the other sPLA2 isoforms, …

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Convergent Hiv Evolution, Keith A. Crandall, Dr. Chris R. Kelsey Jan 2014

Convergent Hiv Evolution, Keith A. Crandall, Dr. Chris R. Kelsey

Journal of Undergraduate Research

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus with RNA as its genetic material. During the replication cycle, the enzyme reverse transcriptase uses the RNA template to transcribe a complementary DNA copy. Because of the significant infidelity of reverse transcriptase, mutations accumulate within the viral genome at a rate approximately a million times higher than that of a typical host genome (3). This high mutation rate leads to a heterogeneous population in which viral isolates are closely related and evolutionary pathways can be discerned from molecular data. In addition, high mutation rates allow for accelerated evolution, especially under selective conditions. …

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Production Of Cytokines Interleukin-6 And Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha In Human Adrenocortical H295r Cells, Joseph Johnson, Dr. Allan M. Judd Jan 2014

Production Of Cytokines Interleukin-6 And Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha In Human Adrenocortical H295r Cells, Joseph Johnson, Dr. Allan M. Judd

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Difficulties associated with research into the physiology of the human adrenal gland have been alleviated due to the isolation of the human adrenocortical tumor cell-line, NCI-H295R, which retains the ability to produce adrenocortical steroids (e.g. aldosterone, cortisol, DHEA) when grown in culture (1). We investigated whether these cells also produce cytokines, peptides which regulate endocrine and immune function.

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Molecular Mechanism Of Neuronal Communication, Blake Simmons, Dr. Dixon Woodbury Jan 2014

Molecular Mechanism Of Neuronal Communication, Blake Simmons, Dr. Dixon Woodbury

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Nerve Cells communicate with each other by synaptic transmission. Synaptic transmission is the release by one nerve cell of neurotransmitters packaged in synaptic vesicles. Proteins known as SNAREs, (e.g., synaptobrevin and syntaxin) are believed to drive neurotransmitter release by inducing fusion (exocytosis) within a presynaptic neuron. Figure 1 shows a synaptic vesicle binding to the presynaptic membrane and the interaction of two SNARE proteins.i,ii My plan was to map which domains of the SNARE protein, syntaxin, are necessary for fusion.

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Common Variable Immunodeficiency: Literature And Reality, Heather Janene Kearl, Dr. Richard R. Tolman Jan 2014

Common Variable Immunodeficiency: Literature And Reality, Heather Janene Kearl, Dr. Richard R. Tolman

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is one of the least understood primary immunodeficiencies. It is a disease where the body attacks its own antibodies, destroying all or most of them. Patients with CVID suffer from recurrent illnesses such as pneumonia, hepatitis, and other infections. While scientists know very little about the illness, there is much information available postulating its origin. In my thesis, I reviewed the current literature concerning CVID and compared it to the real life story of a woman, Darlene Phillips, whose life CVID has shaped.

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Preliminary Phylogeneic Analyses Of The Erotylidae (Coleoptera: Cucujoidea: Erotylidae) Based On Molecular Data, James A. Robertson, Dr. Michael F. Whiting Jan 2014

Preliminary Phylogeneic Analyses Of The Erotylidae (Coleoptera: Cucujoidea: Erotylidae) Based On Molecular Data, James A. Robertson, Dr. Michael F. Whiting

Journal of Undergraduate Research

The Cucujoidea, a very diverse beetle superfamily, includes mycophagous and wood consuming beetles. Within the Cucujoidea is the family Erotylidae (pleasing fungus beetles). The Erotylidae includes 125 genera and approximately 2,500 species, and has a worldwide distribution. Erotylids are known for their striking coloration, including black with yellow, red, orange and even pink and purple (Boyle 1956). The current hypothesis of erotylid phylogeny is based exclusively on adult morphology and was not formulated using rigorous phylogenetic methodology. Hence phylogenetic relationships of the major lineages within this family are dubious. Since erotylid beetles exhibit such striking aposematic coloration, a well-supported phylogeny, …

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The Effects Of Phytoestrogen Diets On Rats Exhibiting Tendencies For Cancerous Growth In Reproductive Tissue, Jason Hatch, Dr. R. Ward Rhees Jan 2014

The Effects Of Phytoestrogen Diets On Rats Exhibiting Tendencies For Cancerous Growth In Reproductive Tissue, Jason Hatch, Dr. R. Ward Rhees

Journal of Undergraduate Research

In recent years, phytoestrogens (nonsteroidal, estrogen-like substances found in plant sources such as beans, rice, soy and wheat) have received extensive investigative research. However, current information about the amount of phytoestrogens in human diets is limited (4). Scientific research has alluded to possible benefits of diets high in phytoestrogens based on epidemiological studies done on Asian and Eastern European cultures (2). These studies indicate that consumption of a phytoestrogen-rich diet, as seen in traditional Asiatic societies, is possibly associated with a lower risk of the so-called “Western” diseases such as breast cancer, prostate cancer, cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis (3). Epidemiological, …

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Phylogeny And Evolution Of The Freshwater Crayfish Family Parastacidae (Crustacea Decapoda), Michael Jonathan Carlson, Dr. Keith A. Crandall Jan 2014

Phylogeny And Evolution Of The Freshwater Crayfish Family Parastacidae (Crustacea Decapoda), Michael Jonathan Carlson, Dr. Keith A. Crandall

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Freshwater crayfish of the family Parastacidae consist of 14 genera distributed in the Southern Hemisphere: nine are endemic to Australia, one to Madagascar, one to New Zealand, and three to South America (southern Chile and Brazil). Although this family has been studied for several years (e.g. Huxley, 1880), the evolutionary relationships among the taxa are still unclear (Crandall et al., 1999). Recently, Crandall et al. (2000) demonstrated the utility of combining mitochondrial (16S) and nuclear (18S and 28S) ribosomal genes to resolve deep and shallow phylogenetic relationships among crayfish. Thus, a more extensive molecular study, using these regions and …

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Histology: A Student’S Comprehensive Lab Manual And Corresponding Cd, Jon Christopher Kerr, Dr. Richard A. Heckmann Jan 2014

Histology: A Student’S Comprehensive Lab Manual And Corresponding Cd, Jon Christopher Kerr, Dr. Richard A. Heckmann

Journal of Undergraduate Research

The purpose of this project was to provide a comprehensive and accurate text for the study of histology–the microscopic study of cells and tissues. In order to facilitate this study, appropriate text corresponding to over 400 histological images was prepared. This manual explains the images, defines and describes the histological and physiological significance of the tissues, and provides an avenue to better understanding of the functions and mechanisms of the human body. Accompanying this manual is a computer-generated program incorporating histological slides, explanatory notes, mock quizzes, tests and a review section. To further augment the learning process, mock quizzes (in …

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Identification Of The Activator Proteins For The Dna-Protein Interaction Of A Primary Cartilage Enhancer, L. Daniel Holsinger, Dr. Laura Bridgewater Jan 2014

Identification Of The Activator Proteins For The Dna-Protein Interaction Of A Primary Cartilage Enhancer, L. Daniel Holsinger, Dr. Laura Bridgewater

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Abstract: The Human col11 2 gene is responsible for the production of type XI collagen, one of the three components of the collagen triple helix. Disruption of this gene results in varied problems including dwarfism, osteoarthritis and possibly cleft palate. In order to understand more about this gene, a series of experiments were carried out to identify proteins involved in its expression in cartilage-producing Chondrocytes. More specifically, based on what was learned in previous research, efforts were made to isolate the DNA sequences that encode those proteins acting as activators of three known enhancer elements in Chondrocyte cells. Using …

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Premature Onset Of Osteoarthritis Due To A Col11a1 Gene Mutation, Victoria Ryder, Dr. Robert Seegmiller Jan 2014

Premature Onset Of Osteoarthritis Due To A Col11a1 Gene Mutation, Victoria Ryder, Dr. Robert Seegmiller

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Cartilage collagen mutations can alter the load-bearing properties of articular cartilage (AC), possibly leading to premature osteoarthritis. AC consists mainly of types II, VI, IX, X, and XI collagen.1 Collagen fibrils in AC are heteropolymers of types II, IX, and XI collagen2. Type II is the major constituent, making up 95% of the fibril, while types IX and XI are minor components. Collagen fibrillar meshwork is essential as it gives AC its structural and tensile strength. Type XI collagen plays a role in dictating fibril diameter, thus playing a role in the AC’s strength. Mutations in the Col11a1 gene can …

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Identifying Protein-Binding Sites In The Enhancer Region Of The Col11a2 Gene, Trevor Ellison, Dr. Laura C. Bridgewater Jan 2014

Identifying Protein-Binding Sites In The Enhancer Region Of The Col11a2 Gene, Trevor Ellison, Dr. Laura C. Bridgewater

Journal of Undergraduate Research

An enhancer is a DNA sequence that regulates a gene’s expression. It is the binding of proteins to a gene’s enhancer region (at its protein-binding sites) that regulates that gene’s expression in the cell. The Col11a2 gene is activated almost solely in chondrocytes (cartilage cells) (Lui et al., 1995) through this same type of protein binding. The Col11a2 gene is responsible, in part, for the formation of type XI collagen. Mutations in this gene have been shown to cause abnormalities ranging from skeletal deformities to hearing loss.

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Analysis Of Microvesicles To Determine Susceptibility To The Enzyme Phospholipase A2, Brent Brimhall, Joseph Callister Jan 2014

Analysis Of Microvesicles To Determine Susceptibility To The Enzyme Phospholipase A2, Brent Brimhall, Joseph Callister

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Microvesicles are small membrane-bound spheres released from certain cells undergoing the decay process. Little is known today about their properties and function at the cellular level. It is hypothesized that microvesicles play a role in cancer metastasis through the action of metalloproteinases enclosed within these spheres. Metalloproteinases are enzymes that act to break up the extracellular matrix of cells. This matrix serves as a type of glue that holds groups of cells together. Without this extracellular matrix in place cells are allowed to break free and migrate to other places of the body. In the case of cancerous cells this …

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Treesaap: A Phylogenetic Approach To Identifying Selective Influences On Amino Acid Properties, Steven Woolley, Dr. David Mcclellan Jan 2014

Treesaap: A Phylogenetic Approach To Identifying Selective Influences On Amino Acid Properties, Steven Woolley, Dr. David Mcclellan

Journal of Undergraduate Research

The program TreeSAAP measures the selective influences on several structural and biochemical amino acid properties during phylogenesis (the history of genealogical development) and performs goodness-of-fit and categorical statistical tests.

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Internal Transcribed Spacer Regions Of Nuclear Ribosomal Dna As A Tool For Phylogenetic Reconstruction, Melissa E. Hardy, Dr. Keith Crandall Jan 2014

Internal Transcribed Spacer Regions Of Nuclear Ribosomal Dna As A Tool For Phylogenetic Reconstruction, Melissa E. Hardy, Dr. Keith Crandall

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Phylogenetic trees are an estimate of genealogical relationships among groups of organisms. They are reconstructed by analyzing homologous nucleic acid sequences from different organisms and deriving an evolutionary relationship from the similarity in sequences.

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Genetic Analysis Of The Mountain Whitefish, Prosopium Williamsoni, Daniel C. Hambleton, Dr. Dennis K. Shiozawa, R. Paul Evans Jan 2014

Genetic Analysis Of The Mountain Whitefish, Prosopium Williamsoni, Daniel C. Hambleton, Dr. Dennis K. Shiozawa, R. Paul Evans

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Although currently part of the Bonneville Basin system, Bear Lake was once connected to the Snake River system of southeastern Idaho 40,000 years ago. Subsequent geological activity disrupted the exchange of fish populations between the Snake River and Bear Lake.

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Producing A Transgenic Mouse, Michael Hatch, Dr. David Kooyman Jan 2014

Producing A Transgenic Mouse, Michael Hatch, Dr. David Kooyman

Journal of Undergraduate Research

One of the greatest challenges in the world today is providing adequate nutrition for all, particularly in third world nations. One potential way to improve worldwide nutrition is to use transgenic animals to create a better livestock base. Transgenic animals can potentially be bigger, stronger, and better producers of meat and milk than their non-transgenic counterparts. The purpose of this research project was to produce transgenic mice, serving as a model for what could potentially occur with larger mammals with more agricultural value, such as cows or pigs.

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Magnitude Of The Freshwater Turtle Exports From The Us: Long Term Trends And Early Effects Of Newly Implemented Harvest Management Regimes., Ivana Mali, Michael W. Vandewege, Scott K. Davis, Michael R.J. Forstner Jan 2014

Magnitude Of The Freshwater Turtle Exports From The Us: Long Term Trends And Early Effects Of Newly Implemented Harvest Management Regimes., Ivana Mali, Michael W. Vandewege, Scott K. Davis, Michael R.J. Forstner

CALS Publications

Unregulated commercial harvest remains a major threat for turtles across the globe. Due to continuing demand from Asian markets, a significant number of turtles are exported from the United States of America (US). Beginning in 2007, several southeastern states in the US implemented restrictions on the commercial harvest of turtles, in order to address the unsustainable take. We have summarized freshwater turtle exports from the US between 2002 and 2012 and demonstrated that the magnitude of turtle exports from the US remained high although the exports decreased throughout the decade. Louisiana and California were the major exporters. The majority of …

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Development Of An Antibody To Utx Protein, Joanna L. Cheatham, Dr. Randy L. Bennett Jan 2014

Development Of An Antibody To Utx Protein, Joanna L. Cheatham, Dr. Randy L. Bennett

Journal of Undergraduate Research

Tribolium castaneum, red flour beetle, is an organism whose development is being studied and compared to that of Drosophila melanogaster. The particular goal of this study was to develop an antibody to Tribolium’s UTX protein, so it’s expression may be monitored during embryonic and larval development.

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