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2024

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Full-Text Articles in Construction Engineering and Management

Comparative Analysis Of Test Results Of Different Nano‑Clay Improved Loess, Zhao Danni, Cao Baohua, Xu Jiangbo, Nan Yalin, Chen Nengyuan, Zhang Peng, Wang Heping Mar 2024

Comparative Analysis Of Test Results Of Different Nano‑Clay Improved Loess, Zhao Danni, Cao Baohua, Xu Jiangbo, Nan Yalin, Chen Nengyuan, Zhang Peng, Wang Heping

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

The orthogonal design t est was used to quantitatively analyze the influencing factors and influence degree of compressive strength，shear strength index，and permeability coefficient of improved loess，and the optimal content of improved loess was obtained.In addition，the improvement mechanism of nano-clay materials on loess was explored by scanning electron microscopy.The results show that：① The factors affecting the compressive strength of improved loess are the content of nano-clay，water content，and curing age，and the factors affecting cohesion，internal friction angle，and permeability coefficient are the content，dry density，and confining pressure.② Under different influencing factors，nano-montmorillonite can effectively improve the compressive strength of loess than attapulgite.③ When the material content …

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Technical Essentials Of Road Geometric Design In Serbia, Xu Da, Yang Xueyong, Yuan Yingshuang, Chen Dongsheng Mar 2024

Technical Essentials Of Road Geometric Design In Serbia, Xu Da, Yang Xueyong, Yuan Yingshuang, Chen Dongsheng

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

With the continuous advancement of China's Belt and Road Initiative，more and more Chinese enterprises are participating in the construction of engineering projects in Central and Eastern Europe，which brings some challenges for designers to master and use local codes for engineering design and consultation.According to the concrete practice of road reconstruction design of Hungary-Serbia Railway （Serbia section ），the application of horizontal and vertical indexes in road geometric design in Serbian was summarized.It is found that road design in Serbian has perfect design standards and systems.The Serbian code and the Chinese code are relatively close in terms of road geometric design standards，and …

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Effect Evaluation Method Of Foamed Asphalt Based On Digital Image Processing Technology, Chang Xiaoyu Mar 2024

Effect Evaluation Method Of Foamed Asphalt Based On Digital Image Processing Technology, Chang Xiaoyu

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

In view of the shortage of deter mining the optimal foaming parameters of foamed asphalt only by experience，this paper adopted digital image processing technology to collect images of the mixture of foamed asphalt and milled material RAI obtained under different foaming conditions and carried out grayscale image conversion，morphological processing，binary image conversion，and image segmentation，so as to calculate the asphalt wrapping rate in different areas.With the uniform dispersion of asphalt in the mixture as the indicator，the foaming effect of foamed asphalt was evaluated，and the optimal foaming parameters were determined.The results show that the digital image processing technology can quickly and effectively evaluate …

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Research On Construction Risk Of Desert Highway Subgrade Engineering Based On Sem, Wang Shouxu, Han Lingyun Mar 2024

Research On Construction Risk Of Desert Highway Subgrade Engineering Based On Sem, Wang Shouxu, Han Lingyun

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

Highway construction in desert areas is of great significance to improving the nodes of transportation networks and developing the economy of remote areas.In order to effectively explore the construction risks of desert highway subgrade engineering，the five aspects of personnel risk，technical risk，material risk，mechanical risk，and environmental risk were analyzed，and 23 indicators affecting the construction risk of desert highway subgrade engineering were screened out by literature research method.Based on the effective data collected by questionnaire survey，a structural equation model （SEM ） of the construction risk of desert highway subgrade engineering was constructed，and the key influencing factors of the construction risk were analyzed.The results …

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Rut Development Law And Correction Factor Of Axle Load Conversion Of Asphalt Pavement In Long And Large Longitudinal Slope, Guo Chenchen, Ding Tingting, Lyu Xin, Sun Jianxiu, Zhang Jizhe, Yao Zhanyong Mar 2024

Rut Development Law And Correction Factor Of Axle Load Conversion Of Asphalt Pavement In Long And Large Longitudinal Slope, Guo Chenchen, Ding Tingting, Lyu Xin, Sun Jianxiu, Zhang Jizhe, Yao Zhanyong

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

The existing design specifications do not make special design provisions for pavements in long and large longitudinal slopes，and the directly applied design specifications ignore the stress characteristics of these pavements，which fail to guarantee pavement performance and life.In order to realize the differential design of the pavement structure of special road sections，based on the measured dynamic modulus of asphalt mixture，annual traffic volume，and temperature data，this paper used the self-developed temperature-axle load analysis software to convert the real traffic volume into standard axle load.Abaqus software was used to establish a rut model under the coupling effect of measured axle load and temperature，and the …

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Mechanical Behavior Of Composite Structures Of Wearing Course And Underlying Layer For Asphalt Pavements, Yang Xiaohua, Yuan Zhanwen, Wen Yongbing, Zhou Chao, Wu Hao Mar 2024

Mechanical Behavior Of Composite Structures Of Wearing Course And Underlying Layer For Asphalt Pavements, Yang Xiaohua, Yuan Zhanwen, Wen Yongbing, Zhou Chao, Wu Hao

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

The interlayer bonding state of pavement structures changes due to the influence of various factors under service conditions，and this change exhibits a significant influence on the mechanical behavior of pavement structures.Through the composite structure test and numerical analysis，the mechanical behavior of the composite structure of different wearing courses and underlying layers under different stresses and bonding states was studied.The test used three commonly used wearing course （surface layer ） materials of asphalt pavements，namely AC- 13，OGFC- 13，and SMA- 13 for comparative analysis.The test results show that different composite structures exhibit different interlayer bonding properties and fatigue characteristics due to the difference …

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Shear Strength Test Of Hefei Expansive Soil Under Low Stress Conditions With Controlled Suction, Hou Chaoqun, Zhang Rongjian, Li Yongxin Mar 2024

Shear Strength Test Of Hefei Expansive Soil Under Low Stress Conditions With Controlled Suction, Hou Chaoqun, Zhang Rongjian, Li Yongxin

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

Topsoil slide and instability of expansive soil slopes may occur under variable saturation conditions.In order to study the strength characteristics of unsaturated expansive soil under low stress conditions，several different matrix suction and stress conditions were set by unsaturated triaxial apparatus.The triaxial shear test of Hefei expansive soil was carried out，and the test data were analyzed.The test results show that when the net confining stress on the expansive soil continues to weaken，the stress-strain curve transitions from strain hardening to strain softening.The strength of unsaturated expansive soil increases with increasing matrix suction.The shear strength of shallow expansive soil shows a significant reduction …

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Influence Of Aerodynamic Shape Change On Wind Resistance Performance Of Large Span Truss Bridge, Jing Dade, Su Yi Mar 2024

Influence Of Aerodynamic Shape Change On Wind Resistance Performance Of Large Span Truss Bridge, Jing Dade, Su Yi

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

The development of the transportation an d tourism industry has led to bridges fulfilling additional roles，such as tourism，alongside their transportation functions，resulting in significant changes in structural aerodynamic shape and ventilation rate.This paper analyzed a double-tower single-span steel truss suspension bridge with a main span of 1 088 m，re-evaluated its wind resistance performance through the full-bridge aeroelastic model wind tunnel test，and evaluated the pedestrian comfort problem while studying the wind-resistant stability of the structure.The results indicate that the structural dynamic characteristics of the bridge remain almost unchanged before and after altering the aerodynamic shape of the bridge for its scenic spot …

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Influence Of Section Selection On Mechanical Performance Of Corrugated Steel Box Culvert, Zhang Shun, Liu Baodong, Gao Meng, Wu Fei, Wang Zhihong Mar 2024

Influence Of Section Selection On Mechanical Performance Of Corrugated Steel Box Culvert, Zhang Shun, Liu Baodong, Gao Meng, Wu Fei, Wang Zhihong

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

Corrugated steel box culverts exhibit a higher section utilization rate compared with circular，arched，and pipe-arch corrugated steel structures，making them more suitable for for scenarios with restricted embankment height.While numerous studies focus on strengthening strategies for corrugated steel box culverts，research on selecting cross-sectional forms is scarce.This study utilized the finite element analysis software Abaqus to develop finite element models of corrugated steel box culverts with sidewall inclination angles of 0°，5°，10°，15° and 20° respectively.The impact of these inclination angles on the structural stress and deformation outcomes was analyzed.The results indicate that increasing the sidewall inclination angles can effectively reduce vertical deformation and maximum …

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Study On Anchorage Reliability For Strand Shoe And Pull Rod Of Air‑Spinning Suspension Bridge, Huang Anming, Yang Bo, Chen Long, Xie Jun, Chen Xin Mar 2024

Study On Anchorage Reliability For Strand Shoe And Pull Rod Of Air‑Spinning Suspension Bridge, Huang Anming, Yang Bo, Chen Long, Xie Jun, Chen Xin

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

Each strand wire of the main cable in the suspension bridge constructed by the AS method is sleeved and anchored on the strand shoes on both banks.The strand shoe transmits the strand force to the anchoring system through the pull rod.The bearing capacity of the strand shoe after the interaction between the strand shoe and the wires of the main cable，the stress state of the wires after small curvature bending，and the influence of installation accuracy of the pull rod on the anchoring reliability all need to be qualitatively and quantitatively studied and verified by the experiment.In this paper，the main cable …

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Research On Gravity Anchorage Foundation Of Dadu River Bridge In Luding, Zhou Ti Ng, Tao Qiyu, Li Zejun Mar 2024

Research On Gravity Anchorage Foundation Of Dadu River Bridge In Luding, Zhou Ti Ng, Tao Qiyu, Li Zejun

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

Moraine soils formed during th e Qua ternary glacial period are widely distributed in the west of China，exhibiting good mechanical properties and deep overburden.This paper studied the Dadu River bridge in Luding and investigated the influence of various foundation forms on anchorage stability in the case of considering moraine soils as the soil supporting layer of gravity anchorage foundation through theoretical analysis and numerical simulation.The findings suggest that a slant expanded foundation with a notched sill demonstrates good force-bearing capability and is cost-effective.These results can provide a reference for similar construction projects in the west of China.

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Test On Water Mist Wrapped Dust Reduction Technology For Tunnels, Wang Yijun, Wang Fei, Jia Yuedi, Pan Weihua, He Xingchun, Yao Wenhui Mar 2024

Test On Water Mist Wrapped Dust Reduction Technology For Tunnels, Wang Yijun, Wang Fei, Jia Yuedi, Pan Weihua, He Xingchun, Yao Wenhui

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

In order to eliminate the dust produced by tunnel blasting more quickly and effectively，two kinds of mist spray and dust reduction schemes were put forward，which were the “air duct water mist wrapped type ” and the “vehicle-mounted water mist wrapped type ”.The field test was carried out on Jiaoding Tunnel in Yunnan.The results show that for the dust reduction technology scheme of “air duct water mist wrapped type ”，the dust concentration of the No.1 characteristic position at the tunnel face decreases to 3.87 mg/m3 after 10 minutes of dust reduction，which meets the specification requirements.For the dust reduction technology of “vehicle-mounted …

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Numerical Simulation On Bearing Characteristics Of Tunnel‑Type Anchorage Of A Grand Bridge Over Qingjiang River, Yin Hongmei, Shi Qian, Zhang Yihu Mar 2024

Numerical Simulation On Bearing Characteristics Of Tunnel‑Type Anchorage Of A Grand Bridge Over Qingjiang River, Yin Hongmei, Shi Qian, Zhang Yihu

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

This paper took the tunnel-type anchorage on the left bank of a grand bridge over the Qingjiang River as an example and established a three-dimensional geological generalization model based on the engineering geological analysis.In addition，the paper used different software to realize the approximate grid discrete division of complex rock mass and tunnel-type anchorage structure.FLAC3D software was used to simulate different working conditions，and the deformation characteristics and bearing capacity of the tunnel-type anchorage were obtained.It is found that the potential failure mode of the tunnel-type anchorage is that the anchor and the rock mass cut by the structural plane on the …

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Study On Length Of Deceleration Lane Of Left Off‑Ramp For Urban Underground Interchanges Based On Traffic Conflicts, Wang Hailiang, Cheng Chong, Guan Hong, Ding Naikan Mar 2024

Study On Length Of Deceleration Lane Of Left Off‑Ramp For Urban Underground Interchanges Based On Traffic Conflicts, Wang Hailiang, Cheng Chong, Guan Hong, Ding Naikan

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

To set a reasonable range of the length of the deceleration lane in the diverge area of the left off-ramp for urban underground interchanges，the effects of the length of the deceleration lane，as well as interactions between traffic volumes and design speeds of mainline and ramp on traffic conflict in the diverge area，were exami ned.By taking the underground interchange of the Wuhan East-South Lakes Tunnel Project as an example，the VISSIM micro traffic simulation test was carried out，and the conflict rate （RCR） and exposed time to collision （TTET） were extracted.The results show that ① when the length of the deceleration lane increases，the …

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Study On Safety Risk Assessment System For Waste Dump Of Mountainous Expressways, Ye Xian, Yin Hao, Zhao Xin, Wang Guanqun, Gao Yu Mar 2024

Study On Safety Risk Assessment System For Waste Dump Of Mountainous Expressways, Ye Xian, Yin Hao, Zhao Xin, Wang Guanqun, Gao Yu

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

The safety of waste dump projects of mountainous expressways is related to environmental protection，water and soil conservation，highway building protection，and downstream environment-sensitive point protection，so it is necessary to put forward safety assessment methods.Based on the data analysis of 1 369 waste dumps in Yunnan Province，the safety risk factors of the waste dump engineering were proposed and summarized as five primary indicators，including site selection and design factors，construction factors，regional geological factors，external influencing factors，and data integrity factors，and 18 secondary indicators were further put forward.The group decision-making analytic hierarchy process （AHP ） model was established，and the weight of secondary indexes was determined by 64 technical …

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Analysis On Design Concept Of Subgrade And Pavement Of Colombia High‑Grade Highway, Liu Tao, Hu Guanhua, Yuan Yi Mar 2024

Analysis On Design Concept Of Subgrade And Pavement Of Colombia High‑Grade Highway, Liu Tao, Hu Guanhua, Yuan Yi

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

Colombian highway design predominantly adheres to American Standards，emphasizing design concepts reflective of the United States while encompassing Colombia's engineering design habits，concepts，and characteristics.This paper introduced the main design schemes of the Colombia MAR 2 Highway Project in northern Colombia，including protection engineering，drainage engineering，subgrade filling，spoil ground，and pavement.It conducted a comparative analysis between Colombian and Chinese design concepts，highlighting similarities and disparities，and put forward the thinking of mutual learning.

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Study On Flexural Behavior Of Wet Joints Of Prefabricated Steel‑Uhpc Composite Bridge Deck, Liao Wancheng, Zhao Hua, An Jiahe Mar 2024

Study On Flexural Behavior Of Wet Joints Of Prefabricated Steel‑Uhpc Composite Bridge Deck, Liao Wancheng, Zhao Hua, An Jiahe

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

Prefabricated steel-UHPC composite bridge deck is a new deck structure system that places the longitudinal rib at the upper layer and forms PBL shear connectors.This structure can be prefabricated in the factory and assembled on-site.The adjacent steel beams are integrated by welding，and the cast in-situ UHPC wet joints connect the adjacent UHPC bridge decks.However，these wet joints represent the structure's vulnerable segments but with little research.To this end，a full-scale model test has been conducted to study the flexural behavior of the wet joints in a steel-UHPC composite bridge deck in a practical project.The Abaqus finite element model was established and verified …

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Research On Shape Optimization Of Four‑Center Circular Highway Tunnel Based On Parametric Modeling Idea, Zhu Lei, Guo Meng, Guo Jinyong, Shen Caihua, Zhang Hanyi Mar 2024

Research On Shape Optimization Of Four‑Center Circular Highway Tunnel Based On Parametric Modeling Idea, Zhu Lei, Guo Meng, Guo Jinyong, Shen Caihua, Zhang Hanyi

Journal of China & Foreign Highway

The rational cross-sectional form of the four-center circular highway tunnel contributes to enhancing the stress state of the lining structure，reducing cracks in the composite lining，and enhancing the durability of the tunnel structure.Utilizing the Ansys APDL programming platform and guided by the design principle of continuous-curvature，a parametric modeling equation for the geometrical dimensions of local tunnel shape in arch foot area was established.The calculation method and numerical simulation models for the equivalent mechanical parameters of the anchor reinforcement area were also developed.The study revealed the impact of the local tunnel shape parameter design in the arch foot area on the internal …

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Scrutinizing The Adoption Of Smart Contracts In The Mena Region’S Construction Industry, Ahmed Gouda Mohamed Mar 2024

Scrutinizing The Adoption Of Smart Contracts In The Mena Region’S Construction Industry, Ahmed Gouda Mohamed

Civil Engineering

The construction industry embodies a paramount role in the economic growth of various nations, including the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Despite its significance, the industry faces construction disputes and payment issues, inducing financial losses and project postponements. Consequently, the construction industry has mutated smart contracts to enhance operational efficiency, which automates contract management tasks and offers perks, including transparency and efficiency. However, the adoption of smart contracts in the MENA construction sector remains limited, and the region lacks thorough research on this topic. This study addresses this gap by examining the level of cognizance and apprehension of …

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104. I-69 Orx Section 3: Completing The Connection, Steven Nicaise Mar 2024

104. I-69 Orx Section 3: Completing The Connection, Steven Nicaise

Purdue Road School

The I-69 Ohio River Crossing (ORX) will be a key, final connection of I-69 between Evansville, Indiana and Henderson, Kentucky. The transformational project includes three contracts, two states and one much-anticipated new river crossing. In this session, you will hear an update on the ORX project as a whole and learn about I-69 ORX Section 3.

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28+1 Bridge Preservation: From Silane To Epoxy Best Practices, Brad Ehle Mar 2024

28+1 Bridge Preservation: From Silane To Epoxy Best Practices, Brad Ehle

Purdue Road School

Attendees will gain a comprehensive understanding of early prevention using penetrating Silane through the 20- to 25-year lifecycle of complimenting epoxy, LMC and other rehabilitative overlay methods, and managing temperature and viscosity for improved application and performance. This session summarizes county and state best practice in the Midwest region.

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Work Zone Safety Fundamentals And Best Practices, Mischa Kachler Mar 2024

Work Zone Safety Fundamentals And Best Practices, Mischa Kachler

Purdue Road School

Join us for a discussion of fundamental principles and best practices of temporary traffic control (TTC) that promote work zone safety. This session will cover topics that designers should know and consider when developing TTC plans. Attendees who will most benefit from this session are designers new to TTC and experienced designers looking for a refresher.

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Purple Line Bus Rapid Transit Project Overview, Michael Schneider, Rachel Wilson Mar 2024

Purple Line Bus Rapid Transit Project Overview, Michael Schneider, Rachel Wilson

Purdue Road School

The Purple Line will be Indianapolis’ second Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) Line, opening for revenue service in the fall of 2024. It will provide rapid transit service along 15.2 miles of E. 38th Street and Post Road, between Indianapolis and Lawrence, for a total cost of $188 million. This presentation will provide an overview of IndyGo’s overall capital program with a focus on the Purple Line project—its unique design features and successful project delivery—from design through construction.

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Demystifying Utility Coordination: Understanding The Basics, Josshe I. Palm Mar 2024

Demystifying Utility Coordination: Understanding The Basics, Josshe I. Palm

Purdue Road School

This session will explain utility coordination to non-utility coordinators. It will help educate others about the role and responsibilities of a utility coordinator, an OSA, easy UC and design mistakes to avoid, scope and design considerations, items commonly overlooked, when to coordinate SUE, and how to work with your UC to request a letting adjustment. We will also highlight UC submittals and allow time for questions about the UC’s role in a project’s success.

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Assessment Of Educational Facilities In Osogobo Metropolis Nigeria, Dele S. Ogundahunsi, Martins B. Gasu, Samuel B. Adedotun, Olayiwola Olayode, Akintayo O. Ojo, Christiana Olayode Mar 2024

Assessment Of Educational Facilities In Osogobo Metropolis Nigeria, Dele S. Ogundahunsi, Martins B. Gasu, Samuel B. Adedotun, Olayiwola Olayode, Akintayo O. Ojo, Christiana Olayode

CSID Journal of Infrastructure Development

This study assessed educational facilities in the Osogbo metropolis, Nigeria, aiming to evaluate the available educational facilities, examine student and staff satisfaction levels, and analyze their availability across schools in the area. The sample consisted of 476 schools, from which 73 were randomly selected. A multistage sampling procedure was employed to sample 1,863 pupils/students and 87 teachers for questionnaire administration, complemented by observation. Data were analyzed using Mean Weighted Average, Summation of Weighted Value, and Analysis of Variance. Findings showed that 63.4% of primary schools had the listed facilities, while 75% of secondary schools reported 81% availability. Public primary school …

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A Statistical Analysis Of Phased Construction Projects, Timothy M. Dejong Mar 2024

A Statistical Analysis Of Phased Construction Projects, Timothy M. Dejong

Theses and Dissertations

The construction industry is known for exceeding target budgets and schedules, and Department of Defense projects are no exception. The Air Force Installation & Mission Support Center (AFIMSC) manages a budget of $3.14 billion to repair, alter, demolish, and maintain Air Force facilities. However, an ever-increasing backlog of maintenance and repair work and a consistently underfunded repair program pose an increased financial risk to the sustainability of the construction and repair program. Phasing large construction efforts is a potential strategy that has recently been used to yield efficiencies by AFIMSC program managers. This study presents a statistical analysis of phased …

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Optimizing Hub And Spoke Selections For Adaptive Basing In Agile Combat Employment, Alan Heng Mar 2024

Optimizing Hub And Spoke Selections For Adaptive Basing In Agile Combat Employment, Alan Heng

Theses and Dissertations

Advancing technologies and emerging competitors within the Indo-Pacific region have rendered the use of fixed installations for United States Air Force (USAF) operations less than optimal for generating airpower. The adoption of Agile Combat Employment (ACE) is imperative and emphasizes a hub-and-spoke model. However, the methodology for selection of contingency locations remains undecided. Current selection of optimal sites hinges on an optimization framework, employing either rank-based or mathematical approaches that consider various criteria to assess and quantify each location. These criteria are then addressed through objectives and constraints, forming the basis for an effective decision-making process. This paper introduces two …

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Quantifying Resilience And Redundancy For Air Force Linear Infrastructure, Ryan C. Jakovich Mar 2024

Quantifying Resilience And Redundancy For Air Force Linear Infrastructure, Ryan C. Jakovich

Theses and Dissertations

The historical underfunding of USAF infrastructure necessitates a strategic approach to reduce excess infrastructure while preserving resilience in the face of potential first-strike scenarios. This thesis formulates an infrastructure resilience metric that assesses network performance under varying degrees of damage. Furthermore, the study calculates the impact of redundant infrastructure by introducing added structural elements and measuring the resultant reduction in performance loss during damage scenarios. Utilizing USAF geospatial infrastructure data, adjacency matrices representing graph theory networks were constructed in Arc GIS Pro and evaluated using coding languages from the IGraph library and algorithms developed in RStudio. The newly proposed performance …

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An Analysis Of Military Construction Cost Escalation And How It Is Accounted For In Cost Estimating Practices, Benjamin D. Rieben Mar 2024

An Analysis Of Military Construction Cost Escalation And How It Is Accounted For In Cost Estimating Practices, Benjamin D. Rieben

Theses and Dissertations

Construction escalation is a significant economic phenomenon that plays an important role in the construction industry. It refers to the steady increase in the costs associated with facility and infrastructure projects over time. Accurately capturing escalation is a key component in the development of construction cost estimates, and failure to adequately account for escalation can have far-reaching consequences. This is especially true for Military Construction (MILCON) projects, which account for billions of dollars of defense spending annually. The Department of Defense (DoD) utilizes a unit cost approach to develop rough order of magnitude (ROM) estimates for MILCON projects. The DoD …

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Development Of A Metric To Quantify Facility Hardening, Jesse C. Solorzano Mar 2024

Development Of A Metric To Quantify Facility Hardening, Jesse C. Solorzano

Theses and Dissertations

This research investigates the intricate aspect of infrastructure resilience, focusing on the distinction between hardening and resilience. Hardening, often used interchangeably, with enhancing resilience, involves strategies to strengthen facilities, networks, or systems against various threats. Despite its recognized importance in mitigating physical disruptions and enhancing facility functionality amid different threats, a significant vagueness persists in quantitatively defining hardening. This thesis addresses this gap by developing a quantifiable metric for facility hardening, separate from general resilience measures. The study begins by exploring the historical context of facility hardening, linked to catastrophic events and the need for resilient infrastructure. It explores various …

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