Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®
Civil and Environmental Engineering Commons™
Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®
- Discipline
-
- Transportation Engineering (408)
- Civil Engineering (243)
- Construction Engineering and Management (104)
- Other Civil and Environmental Engineering (77)
- Environmental Engineering (69)
-
- Structural Engineering (55)
- Materials Science and Engineering (47)
- Geotechnical Engineering (39)
- Hydraulic Engineering (38)
- Other Materials Science and Engineering (25)
- Physical Sciences and Mathematics (24)
- Structural Materials (21)
- Engineering Science and Materials (14)
- Mechanical Engineering (14)
- Earth Sciences (13)
- Life Sciences (11)
- Aerospace Engineering (10)
- Architecture (10)
- Environmental Sciences (10)
- Hydrology (9)
- Social and Behavioral Sciences (9)
- Electrical and Computer Engineering (8)
- Other Engineering Science and Materials (8)
- Computer Engineering (7)
- Applied Mechanics (6)
- Construction Engineering (6)
- Manufacturing (6)
- Oceanography and Atmospheric Sciences and Meteorology (6)
- Keyword
-
- Concrete (32)
- Pavement (22)
- Durability (19)
- Geopolymer (18)
- Sustainability (18)
-
- Hurricane (16)
- Groundwater (15)
- Fly Ash (14)
- Pavements (13)
- Louisiana (12)
- Machine Learning (12)
- Modeling (11)
- UHPC (11)
- Biodegradation (10)
- Bioremediation (10)
- ECC (10)
- Metakaolin (10)
- Safety (10)
- Stabilization (10)
- Corrosion (9)
- Crashes (9)
- Evacuation (9)
- Supplementary Cementitious Materials (9)
- Traffic Safety (9)
- Bacteria (8)
- Infrastructure (8)
- Marsh (8)
- Rehabilitation (8)
- Reliability (8)
- Rutting (8)
- Publication Year
- Publication
- Publication Type
- File Type
Articles 811 - 840 of 1043
Full-Text Articles in Civil and Environmental Engineering
The Effect Of Exopolymers On The Compressibility And Shear Strength Of Kaolinite, Rick Alton Nugent
The Effect Of Exopolymers On The Compressibility And Shear Strength Of Kaolinite, Rick Alton Nugent
LSU Doctoral Dissertations
Erosion and subsidence threaten coastal infrastructure and natural habitats throughout the coastal United States, and this threat is especially significant along the Louisiana coastline since wetland clays are generally weak and highly compressible. Hydraulic pumping of dredged sediment is a common method for combating damage caused by erosion and subsidence, but the high water content slurry deposited is very compressible with low shear strength. Although conventional soil amendments are effective for reducing compressibility and increasing shear strength, these stabilizers are often caustic or toxic, making them too risky to use. Exopolymers, however, have the potential to improve sediment stability without …
Identifying And Quantifying Factors Affecting Traffic Crash Severity In Louisiana, Hong Zhang
Identifying And Quantifying Factors Affecting Traffic Crash Severity In Louisiana, Hong Zhang
LSU Doctoral Dissertations
This study was conducted to identify and quantify the factors affecting highway crash severity in Louisiana. Three candidate models were fit to the crash data to compare their performance and the Ordered Mixed Logit (OML) model was selected as the crash severity prediction model of choice. The factors contributing to crash severity identified by the OML model are: age and gender of the driver, vehicle speed, whether alcohol played a role in the crash, whether seatbelts were used, whether the driver was ejected from the vehicle, whether the crash was a head-on collision, whether an airbag was deployed, and whether …
Probabilistic Models For Short Term Traffic Conditions Prediction, Yan Qi
Probabilistic Models For Short Term Traffic Conditions Prediction, Yan Qi
LSU Doctoral Dissertations
Accurate short-term prediction of traffic condition on freeways and major arterials has become increasingly important because of its vital role in traffic management functions and various trip decisions. Given the dynamic nature of freeway traffic, this study proposed two stochastic model approaches, Hidden Markov Model (HMM) and One-Step Stochastic Model, for short-term traffic prediction during peak periods. The data used in the study are real-time traffic monitoring data gathered over 6 years on a 40-mile segment of Interstate-4 in Orlando, Florida. Both approaches are based on the traffic state transition probabilities. The HMM approach defines traffic states in a two …
Effect Of Management Awareness Of Safety Climate Concept On Organizational Safety Climate, Christopher Michael Holzner
Effect Of Management Awareness Of Safety Climate Concept On Organizational Safety Climate, Christopher Michael Holzner
LSU Master's Theses
Safety research and practice have shifted focus away from accident rates and accident causal information to a more proactive approach that may predict organizational safety trends. This proactive approach involves the concept of an organizational safety culture and the use of surveys to measure organizational safety climate or „snapshot‟ of the organizational safety culture. Surveys were administered to line workers, supervisors, and managers at a modular home manufacturing company before and after safety climate information was presented to supervisors and managers in an attempt to measure the effect of the supervisors‟ and managers‟ increased awareness of the factors that define …
Hydrodynamic Modeling Of San Elijo Lagoon, California, Mary Elizabeth Nee Friedmann Bourgoyne
Hydrodynamic Modeling Of San Elijo Lagoon, California, Mary Elizabeth Nee Friedmann Bourgoyne
LSU Master's Theses
Decisions on where to concentrate management efforts need to be guided by an ability to accurately simulate and predict physical and ecological changes. Many restoration projects experience difficulties due to a lack of understanding of the ecological response and evolution of wetland systems (Goodwin et al., 2001). There are several approaches that can be taken in analyzing a system. The appropriate selection should be based on the available data, the spatial scale of the wetland, and the physical processes governing the system (Goodwin and Kamman, 2001). Predictive tools are essential for good long-term management (Goodwin et al., 2001). The objective …
Operational And Safety Assessment Of Joint And Conventional Lane Merge Configurations For Freeway Work Zones, Pradeep Rayaprolu
Operational And Safety Assessment Of Joint And Conventional Lane Merge Configurations For Freeway Work Zones, Pradeep Rayaprolu
LSU Master's Theses
Inefficient operation of traffic at work zone areas typically leads to increase in travel time delays, queue length, fuel consumption, number of forced merges, and roadway accidents. In order to improve the operational efficiency of work zones, research on freeway work zones constantly seeks to develop different lane merge control strategies, in addition to the conventional lane merge configuration, recommended by the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. This study evaluates the operational efficiency and safety benefits of a newly proposed configuration, joint lane merge (JLM), and compare its performance with the conventional lane merge (CLM) configuration. A simulation model …
Cost Effective Prevention Of Reflective Cracking In Composite Pavements, Rakesh Bandaru
Cost Effective Prevention Of Reflective Cracking In Composite Pavements, Rakesh Bandaru
LSU Master's Theses
Louisiana had experimented with various techniques and treatments to control reflection cracking since the 1970s; however, the cost-effectiveness and performance of these methods had not been reliably evaluated. In addition, scientific evaluation and testing of these treatment methods was not performed on many projects. To ensure successful control of this distress and effective allocation of maintenance funds, there is a critical need to assess the performance of pavement sections across the state built with various treatment methods and to determine the most cost-effective techniques to delay or to prevent reflection cracking in composite pavements. The objective of this study is …
The Effects Of Lean On Employees' Affective Attitude In A Modular Homebuilding Manufacturer, Digvesh Khot
The Effects Of Lean On Employees' Affective Attitude In A Modular Homebuilding Manufacturer, Digvesh Khot
LSU Master's Theses
Many organizational problems are related to job dissatisfaction, job-related stress, and lack of commitment in workers. Employees’ Affective Attitude (EAA) involves these three factors: job satisfaction, job stress, and commitment. This research is aimed at measuring the impact of Lean concepts on EAA factors. While providing an overview of Lean production and construction, this study focuses on one fundamental Lean concept, Kaizen. This thesis describes a case study showcasing the application of Lean concepts through Kaizen events and its impact on EAA for a modular homebuilder company. Based on previous literature a conceptual model was developed describing the potential links …
Hydrogen Production From Molasses Using Chlorinated Alkane-Contaminated Groundwater As An Inoculum, Hector Narez
Hydrogen Production From Molasses Using Chlorinated Alkane-Contaminated Groundwater As An Inoculum, Hector Narez
LSU Master's Theses
The Scenic Highway area of the PetroProcessors of Louisiana, Inc. (PPI) Superfund site located near Baton Rouge, LA, has groundwater contaminated with a variety of chlorinated alkanes (e.g., 1,2-dichloroethane, 1,2-dichloropropane) and alkenes (e.g., trichloroethene and vinyl chloride). In March 2009, a field-scale pilot test was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of injecting diluted agricultural feed grade molasses into the groundwater in an effort to stimulate in-situ reductive dechlorination of these chlorinated contaminants. Because H2 plays an important role as an electron donor in the metabolism of reductively dechlorinating bacteria, in support of the pilot-scale effort, experiments described in this thesis …
Nanomechanics Of Muscovite Subjected To Nanoindentation And The Pertinent Indentation Size Effect, Hang Yin
Nanomechanics Of Muscovite Subjected To Nanoindentation And The Pertinent Indentation Size Effect, Hang Yin
LSU Master's Theses
Two groups of nanoindentation experiments, including repeated loading tests and monotonic loading tests, were performed on muscovite with a sharp indenter tip and loading direction normal to the basal plane. By varying the maximum load in the first group of repeated experiments, influences of the load level can be examined on the modes of nanoscale deformation and the resulting estimation of hardness and elastic modulus. The incipient kink band concept was employed to interpret the observed dispersed loading-unloading hysteresis loops by considering formation and annihilation of IKBs. Furthermore, the material’s contact stiffness behavior was characterized by comparing the normalized unloading …
Biomechanical Evaluation Of Modified Track Shoes, Marlon Alberetos Greensword
Biomechanical Evaluation Of Modified Track Shoes, Marlon Alberetos Greensword
LSU Master's Theses
Track and field runners, especially sprinters and mid-distance runners, face many problems due to walking in spike shoes. Due to the fact that track and field spike shoes are designed specifically for running, the runner’s feet remain in an uncomfortable, flexed position when walking between workouts and races. Problems caused by the dangerous foot-positioning include, but are not limited to, the following: back pain, shin splints, bone spurs, blisters, and overall decreased level of running performance. Over time, runners wearing improper footwear for walking may face chronic injuries such as plantar fasciitis, shin splints, Achilles tendinitis, chondromalacia, and iliotibial band …
An Operational Policy For A Single Vendor Multi Buyer Integrated Inventory Supply Chain System Considering Shipping Time, Chiranjit Saha
An Operational Policy For A Single Vendor Multi Buyer Integrated Inventory Supply Chain System Considering Shipping Time, Chiranjit Saha
LSU Master's Theses
Since its introduction, the concept of integrated inventory supply chain has received a considerable amount of attention. The majority of studies in the last three decades revealed an increase in holding cost as product moves further down the chain or up the chain. A recent study Hoque (2008) considered vendor’s setup cost and inventory holding cost. Some research also considered fixed transportation cost, which is unrealistic. This study focuses on a single-vendor, multi-buyer scenario and presents three models. First, two models illustrate the transferring of equally-sized batches. Then, a third model considers the transferring of unequally-sized batches in a lot. …
Factors Affecting The Interface Shear Strength Of Pavement Layers, Nachiketa Bharat Patel
Factors Affecting The Interface Shear Strength Of Pavement Layers, Nachiketa Bharat Patel
LSU Master's Theses
Flexible pavement structures are built in layers with a certain degree of bonding at the interface, which is affected by several factors which could be either material related, or construction related. The tack coat material type, residual application rate, tack coat coverage, and pavement surface type are attributed as material related factors. On the other hand, cleanliness, moisture, and vertical confinement pressure could be classified as construction related factors. The objective of this study was to quantify the effects of these factors on the pavement interface bonding in terms of interface shear strength. Five types of tack coats, four of …
A Study Of Hough Transform For Weld Extraction, Rakesh Gunaseelan
A Study Of Hough Transform For Weld Extraction, Rakesh Gunaseelan
LSU Master's Theses
The process of joining metals is called welding. At times, selecting a poor quality material or improper usage of welding technologies may cause defects in welded joints. Some of these welded joints have to be tested nondestructively, because their failure can cause lot of damage, for instance in power plants. Radiography is a very common method for non-destructive testing of welds. It is done by certified weld inspectors who have knowledge about weld flaws, looking at the radiograph of the welded joint with naked eye. The judgment of the weld inspector can be biased; subjective, because it is dependent on …
Empirically Evaluating And Developing Alarm Rate Standards For Liquid Pipeline Control Room Operators, Glen David Uhack Ii
Empirically Evaluating And Developing Alarm Rate Standards For Liquid Pipeline Control Room Operators, Glen David Uhack Ii
LSU Master's Theses
The liquid and gas pipeline community has recently been faced with the challenge of new governmental regulations set forth by congress which are being implemented by PHMSA (an arm of the DOT). These new governmental regulations need to understand the role of the human in the loop as part of alarm management systems. To investigate alarm rate standards a repeated measures design was developed that included a series of ten (10) simulated liquid pipeline operator scenarios utilizing high fidelity liquid pipeline simulation software (Stoner Pipeline Simulator). A total of 39 participants volunteered for this study. Participants completed two subsets of …
Thermal Conductivity And Its Effects On The Performance Of Pcc Pavements In Mepdg, Upender Kodide
Thermal Conductivity And Its Effects On The Performance Of Pcc Pavements In Mepdg, Upender Kodide
LSU Master's Theses
This study developed a standard thermal conductivity test procedure to test concrete specimens and studied factors influencing those specimens. The thermal conductivity of concrete is significantly affected by moisture content, type, and percentage of coarse aggregate; this finding was confirmed statistically by Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The study also developed a model for predicting the thermal conductivity of concrete that varies with moisture content and the coarse aggregate percentage. To understand the effect of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), this study also measured thermal conductivity of control and ternary mixtures. An increase in thermal conductivity percentage due to increase in moisture …
Estimated Impact Of Left Lane Truck Restriction On Louisiana Highway Pavement Using Mepdg, Mini Radhakrishnan
Estimated Impact Of Left Lane Truck Restriction On Louisiana Highway Pavement Using Mepdg, Mini Radhakrishnan
LSU Master's Theses
Truck lane restriction strategies (TLRS) are strategies used to manage truck traffic on highways by prohibiting trucks from using certain lanes in order to minimize interaction between trucks and other vehicles and currently it is under consideration for implementation in Louisiana’s multi-lane highways. One of the serious impacts of a truck lane restriction on highways is accelerated pavement damage on unrestricted lanes due to the increased truck traffic on them. The purpose of this study is to estimate the increased pavement damage on the right lane in terms of various distress caused by imposing left lane truck restriction on trucks …
Influence Of Unstable Soil Movement On Pile-Founded Concrete Floodwalls And A Resulting Design Methodology, Richard James Varuso
Influence Of Unstable Soil Movement On Pile-Founded Concrete Floodwalls And A Resulting Design Methodology, Richard James Varuso
LSU Doctoral Dissertations
Efforts are underway in the New Orleans area to raise the elevations of its levee system to combat the effects of hurricane storm surge. When complete, the majority of the system will be comprised of a combination of levees, sheet pile I-Walls, floodgates, and pile-supported concrete floodwalls, commonly referred to as T-Walls. Given the magnitude of the hydrostatic forces associated with storm surge, global instability is failure mechanism that must be considered in the design of T-Walls. In the past, it was assumed that these forces would be resisted by the T-Wall’s sheet pile cut-off wall. Recent literature review and …
Dynamic Trip Distribution Models For Hurricane Evacuation, Guangxiang Cheng
Dynamic Trip Distribution Models For Hurricane Evacuation, Guangxiang Cheng
LSU Doctoral Dissertations
The dissertation presents several methods to estimate time-dependent origin-destination (O-D) trip tables for hurricane evacuation using survey data from hurricane Floyd in South Carolina in 1999. A static disaggregate destination choice model in multinomial logit form was developed considering household characteristics, hurricane threats, and destination socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. Models were developed for persons evacuating to friends or relatives, and hotels or motels separately. None of the household characteristics of evacuees were found to be significant in distinguishing destination choice but destination characteristics were. The model was tested by comparing the observed destination choices with predicted values via trip length …
Transit-Based Emergency Evacuation Modeling With Microscopic Simulation, Hana H. Naghawi
Transit-Based Emergency Evacuation Modeling With Microscopic Simulation, Hana H. Naghawi
LSU Doctoral Dissertations
Several recent mass evacuations, including those in advance of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans and Hurricane Rita in Houston, have demonstrated the effects of limited planning for carless populations. The lack of planning left a significant portion of the mobility-limited population of both these cities unable to flee in advance of the storms. Since 2005 however, both of these cities (as well as others across the United States) have developed transit assisted mass evacuation plans at various levels of detail. Since these plans are relatively recent and do not have a history of experience on which to base their performance, …
Friction And Wear At Elevated Velocities, Adam Lodygowski
Friction And Wear At Elevated Velocities, Adam Lodygowski
LSU Doctoral Dissertations
Severe contact stress problems generate high temperature and create thermomechanical gouging and wear due to high velocity sliding between contacting materials. The major consideration is to develop an experimental and theoretical model for the material constitutive behavior in order to better characterize and predict the internal failure surroundings the gouging and wear events and understand the physical behavior of high speed contact environment. An enhancement of an existing tribometer device developed by Philippon et al. [2004] is made up of a dynamometer ring and a load sensor that allows to apply an apparent normal force on specimens and measure frictional …
Studies Of Hydrophobic Organic Pollutant Interactions With Cyclodextrin: Implication For Groundwater Remediation, Heng Gao
LSU Doctoral Dissertations
Henry’s Law constants of several common, subsurface hydrophobic organic pollutants (HOPs) including trichloroethylene (TCE), perchloroethylene (PCE) and benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and o-xylene (BTEX), were measured over a range of temperatures (35, 45, 55 and 65°C) and cyclodextrin (CD) concentrations (0, 10, 20, 50 and 100 g L-1). In aqueous CD solutions, Henry’s constant values decrease by a power law relationship with increasing CD concentration due to an apparent solubility enhancement caused by HOP partitioning to the hydrophobic cavity of CD molecules. The temperature dependence of air-water partitioning under the influence of CD was well described by the van’t Hoff equation …
Micro Characterization Of Deformations In Granular Materials During Shear, Alsidqi Hasan
Micro Characterization Of Deformations In Granular Materials During Shear, Alsidqi Hasan
LSU Doctoral Dissertations
One of the greatest challenges in studying the engineering behavior of granular materials is the lack of tools for an unobstructed view of a large quantity of microscopic particles. This dissertation presents a thorough characterization of deformations in sheared granular materials. The investigation involves experimental programs, utilization of computed tomography (CT) techniques, and application of Distinct Element Method (DEM). The investigation was conducted at multi-scale (macroscopic, mesoscopic, and microscopic) to better understand the physical properties and constitutive behavior of granular materials during shear. The experiments include conducting a series of axisymmetric triaxial, miniature axisymmetric triaxial, and biaxial experiments. They were …
Bacterial Characterization Of Louisiana Groundwater Contaminated By Dnapl-Containing Chloroethanes And Other Solvents, Kimberly Bowman
Bacterial Characterization Of Louisiana Groundwater Contaminated By Dnapl-Containing Chloroethanes And Other Solvents, Kimberly Bowman
LSU Doctoral Dissertations
In support of an effort to determine the feasibility of using an in-situ bioremediation strategy for cleanup of groundwater in an area containing chlorinated solvents present as a dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL), the bacterial population in the groundwater at a Superfund site located near Baton Rouge, Louisiana was characterized. More than 3¡Á107 cells/mL in the groundwater were observed via microscopy. Universal bacterial and ¡°Dehalococcoides¡±-specific 16S rRNA gene libraries were constructed and analyzed. Universal clones grouped into 18 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), as defined by sequence similarity ¡Ý97.0%, which included several as yet undescribed organisms. Multiple unique sequences closely related …
Nanoidentation Behavior Of Clay Minerals And Clay-Based Nonstructured Multilayers, Zhongxin Wei
Nanoidentation Behavior Of Clay Minerals And Clay-Based Nonstructured Multilayers, Zhongxin Wei
LSU Doctoral Dissertations
Clay minerals, ubiquitous in the geosphere, are hydrous layered silicates or phyllosilicates that are made of nanometer-thick 2:1 or 1:1 layers. Understanding their mechanical properties of clay minerals is of vital importance to a variety of disciplines, such as geomechanics, geophysics, mineral physics, and nanocomposites. Owing to their complex crystal structure and size, however, accurate determination of their mechanical properties is a significant challenge. This dissertation presents the first research effort to study systematically the fundamental mechanical properties along the c-axis (e.g., elastic modulus, hardness) of a wide range of phyllosilicates with varying crystal structure and chemical compositions. To explore …
Stability Of Articulated Revetments Against Wave Attack On Shallow Soft Soil Slopes, Edmond Joseph Russo
Stability Of Articulated Revetments Against Wave Attack On Shallow Soft Soil Slopes, Edmond Joseph Russo
LSU Doctoral Dissertations
Continuously-connected, articulated revetment systems have potential to decrease the weight of armor cover in resisting wave attack, compared to traditional designs. Modes of instability for sloping revetments include uplift, sliding, and toe roll-up. Design methods are summarized by McDonnell (1998), Pilarczyk (1998), and Herbich (1999). Russo (2003) conducted a field prototype scale investigation on performance of Articulated Concrete Mattresses (ACMs) in coastal Louisiana, which demonstrated this structure’s ability to resist a range of wave loading conditions, and inspired scoping of further research to quantify structure performance beyond known limits. Present research expanded earlier works by examining fundamental physical processes of …
Pore-Scale Analysis Of Dnapl Dissolution And Biomass Distribution, Keegan L. Roberts
Pore-Scale Analysis Of Dnapl Dissolution And Biomass Distribution, Keegan L. Roberts
LSU Doctoral Dissertations
A comparison of equilibrium and non-equilibrium dissolution of tetrachloroethylene (PCE) was conducted to ascertain how PCE saturation, individual blob properties (volume, surface area, sphericity), and PCE occupied pores are affected by two distinct dissolution regimes. One-dimensional columns were imaged at various dissolution stages using high resolution (~10 um) synchrotron x-ray tomography (XT) and image subvolumes were analyzed using a series of grain, pore network structure, and blob analysis algorithms. An analysis of algorithm-generated data was conducted to determine grain and pore statistics, PCE saturation and individual blob properties, and correlations between PCE blobs and pore network structure. Grain and pore …
Laboratory Characterization Of Geogrid-Reinforced Unbound Granular Material For Use In Flexible Pavement Structures, Gael Souci
LSU Master's Theses
This thesis documents and summarizes research and background information carried on geogrid reinforced base course in pavement design. Research was experimental carried through Repeated Load Triaxial (RLT) tests at the Louisiana Transportation Research Center. The experimental tests were performed to observe the benefit of the geogrid as well as to differentiate between geogrid location, geometry and tensile modulus of the various geogrid. Experiments were also carried to further describe the Shakedown Theory and its use for characterization of base course materials. The experimental results showed that there was a benefit in placing the geogrid within the aggregate specimen. There were …
Thermomechanical Modeling And Optimization Of Friction Stir Welding, Manthan Malde
Thermomechanical Modeling And Optimization Of Friction Stir Welding, Manthan Malde
LSU Master's Theses
This thesis research implemented an existing thermomechanical model of friction stir welding process, and studied the surrogate model-based optimization approach to obtain optimal process parameters for the modeled friction stir welding process. As an initial step, the thermomechanical model developed by Zhu and Chao for friction stir welding of 304L stainless steel was replicated using ANSYS. The developed model was then used to conduct parametric studies to understand the effect of various input parameters like total rate of heat input, welding speed and clamping location on temperature distribution and residual stress in the workpiece. With the data from the simulated …
Gas Transfer In Air-Lifts Used To Recirculate Aquaculture Systems, Ryan Anthony Hearn
Gas Transfer In Air-Lifts Used To Recirculate Aquaculture Systems, Ryan Anthony Hearn
LSU Master's Theses
The following studies were conducted to determine hydraulic, aeration, and degasification characteristics associated with various air-lift pumps. The first study presented data on a 20.3 cm air-lift used to support adult Yellowtail broodstock (Seriola lalandi) in an oligotrophic warmwater marine RAS (recirculating aquaculture system). Empirical relationships were used to estimate actual oxygen and carbon dioxide mass transfer rates (AOTR & ACTR) as the inlet oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations were perturbed under lift heights of 30.5, 38.1, and 45.7 cm. Transfer rates, kg of constituent per day, were found to be dependent on air injection depth and volume, aqueous gas …