Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®

Education Commons™

Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®

Theses/Dissertations

Discipline
Institution
Keyword
Publication Year
Publication
File Type

Articles 421 - 450 of 81054

Full-Text Articles in Education

Sharing The Voices Of Latine Students: Their Experiences Of Community, Belonging And Joy In A Suburban Public High School, Ashley Acosta-Meyers Jul 2026

Sharing The Voices Of Latine Students: Their Experiences Of Community, Belonging And Joy In A Suburban Public High School, Ashley Acosta-Meyers

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Theses and Dissertations

This qualitative phenological and ethnographic study explored how seven Latine high school students in a suburban public high school defined and experienced community, belonging, and joy, asking what school spaces, experiences, and practices build or diminish these three concepts. Data was collected through four interview sessions per participant, reflective journaling, and three culturally and linguistically responsive walkthrough observations, and were analyzed through layered linguistic, narrative, and thematic coding. Findings showed that belonging and joy were tied to specific spaces rather than felt evenly across the school day. Institutional fairness shaped belonging as much as any relationship. Latine identity was contested, …


Beyond Casebooks: Law School’S Hidden Curriculum, Nubia Nelly Esparza Jul 2026

Beyond Casebooks: Law School’S Hidden Curriculum, Nubia Nelly Esparza

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Theses and Dissertations

This mixed methods study sought to understand how the hidden curriculum affects first-generation, marginalized, and underrepresented law students and attorneys, what educational and career opportunities they have missed as a result of not knowing these unwritten rules, and what law schools could do to better prepare this population for the realities of legal education and practice. Data were collected through an anonymous online survey and a focus group with first-generation law students and attorneys who have been in the profession for ten years or less. Analysis of the data was mapped against the Conceptual Framework of the Hidden Curriculum in …


Automated Scoring Of Prosody In Oral Reading Fluency: Integrating Acoustic And Sentence/Chunk-Level Silence Features With Machine Learning, Kuo Wang Jul 2026

Automated Scoring Of Prosody In Oral Reading Fluency: Integrating Acoustic And Sentence/Chunk-Level Silence Features With Machine Learning, Kuo Wang

Education Policy and Leadership Theses and Dissertations

Prosody, the ability to read with appropriate variation in pitch, duration, pausing, and stress, is an important (and challenging to measure) dimension of oral reading fluency (ORF) and comprehension. ORF prosody is currently measured through human raters and rubric-based scoring systems (e.g., the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) or the Multidimensional Fluency Scale (MDFS scales). The rating process is labor and resource-intensive and introduces rater bias. Recent work has shown acoustic features to predict prosody ratings; however, their models had low generalization performance on cross-domain data (unseen passages and student samples).

The present study investigated the automated assessment of …


Native American Speech-Language Pathologists: Voices And Perspectives, Lexi Woods Jul 2026

Native American Speech-Language Pathologists: Voices And Perspectives, Lexi Woods

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Abstract: This narrative inquiry centers the lived experiences and professional voices of Native American speech-language pathologists (SLPs) working with students with disabilities on tribal lands, a population that remains unheard within special education and speech-language pathology research. Grounded in Indigenous epistemologies that honor relationality, storytelling, and community accountability, this study explores how Native American SLPs navigate systemic inequities, cultural and linguistic mismatches, and institutional constraints while providing services in public, tribally controlled, and Bureau of Indian Education schools. Through in-depth narratives, the research illuminates how participants resist deficit-based approaches by reframing silence, communication styles, family engagement, and disability through culturally …


Idenscarty: Sewing As A Coping Mechanism Beyond Reductive Aesthetics And Capitalism, Edward Berchie Osei Jul 2026

Idenscarty: Sewing As A Coping Mechanism Beyond Reductive Aesthetics And Capitalism, Edward Berchie Osei

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

The act of sewing, an intergenerational craft often subordinated to aesthetics and capitalism, is being recognized for its benefit to emotional well-being, identity (re)formation, cultural continuity, and communal interconnectedness. In this context, this thesis emerges from my lived experiences and artistic inquiry into how sewing, slow-sewing in particular, can serve as a therapeutic practice, with special consideration for contemporary art pedagogy. Central to the thesis is the concept of IDENSCARTY, which combines themes of identity, scars, and transcultural influence to project the responsive abilities of Therapeutic Sewing Practices (TSP), a term that highlights the workability of slow-sewing practices. Informed by …


Voices Unheard: A Phenomenological Study Of Access And Inclusion Of College Students With Autism In The Southeastern United States, Janet L. Kuchinski Jul 2026

Voices Unheard: A Phenomenological Study Of Access And Inclusion Of College Students With Autism In The Southeastern United States, Janet L. Kuchinski

Dissertations

Although access to higher education has expanded for students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), many continue to encounter barriers to meaningful inclusion, belonging, and participation within the college environment. The purpose of this interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) study was to explore the lived experiences of college students with ASD regarding access and inclusion in higher education. Purposeful sampling was used to recruit five college students with ASD who were at least 19 years of age, currently enrolled in college, and registered with disability services. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews conducted via Microsoft Teams and analyzed using established IPA procedures. …


Adjustment Challenges In The International Student Population At A Rural Mid-Size Midwestern University, Sara El Bizri Hussein Jul 2026

Adjustment Challenges In The International Student Population At A Rural Mid-Size Midwestern University, Sara El Bizri Hussein

All NMU Master's Theses

This qualitative descriptive study explored the adjustment experiences of non-athlete international students attending a rural, mid-size Midwestern university and identified the challenges and supports that shaped their transition.

Guided by Berry’s acculturation framework and informed by theories of student integration and coping, data were collected through an initial survey and semi-structured interviews. Seven participants were interviewed. Interview transcripts were analyzed using open and focused coding procedures to identify recurring patterns and themes.

Analysis revealed that international student adjustment is multidimensional and influenced by social, academic, emotional, cultural, environmental, and structural factors. Three major themes emerged from the data: (1) Social …


Fractured Focus: Understanding Stress In Second-Year Radiologic Science Students Across Alabama, Kelsi Clotfelter Jul 2026

Fractured Focus: Understanding Stress In Second-Year Radiologic Science Students Across Alabama, Kelsi Clotfelter

Honors Theses

Higher education is a period of rapid transition and growing responsibility, where stress often becomes a routine part of students’ lives. In health professional programs, the combined demands of intensive coursework and clinical training can intensify emotional strain and negatively affect overall well-being. Radiography students experience uniquely high levels of academic, clinical, and emotional stress due to the simultaneous demands of didactic coursework, competency-based clinical training, and high-stakes professional expectations. A cross-sectional mixed-methods study was employed to evaluate the prevalence, sources, and perceived impact of stress among second-year radiography students across multiple Alabama institutions with the goal of identifying strategies …


Influence Of Stormwater Flooding Events On The Mobile County School District Student Population, Kadence Kali Johnston Jul 2026

Influence Of Stormwater Flooding Events On The Mobile County School District Student Population, Kadence Kali Johnston

Honors Theses

Mobile County, Alabama, receives among the highest annual rainfall totals in the United States resulting in frequent stormwater flooding that intersects with existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Within the Mobile County Public School System (MCPSS), 77% of students are economically disadvantaged and over 10% experience homelessness, creating heightened risk for educational disruption during flood events. This study investigates how stormwater flooding influences school attendance, closures, and academic performance across MCPSS, providing insight into how climate-driven hazards exacerbate educational inequities. The research integrates flood frequency, school performance metrics, and GIS flood-zone mapping and teacher perceptions to understand how flooding affects student learning opportunities. …


The Use Of Assisted Repeated Reading To Increase Fluency And Comprehension Among Adolescent English Language Learners, Matthew J. Wentzell Jul 2026

The Use Of Assisted Repeated Reading To Increase Fluency And Comprehension Among Adolescent English Language Learners, Matthew J. Wentzell

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Theses and Dissertations

Wentzell, M. (2026). The Use of Assisted Repeated Reading to Increase Fluency and Comprehension Among Adolescent English Language Learners

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of audio-assisted repeated reading on fluency and comprehension among adolescent English learners and gauge their opinions on the intervention and its impact on their reading ability. Areas of exploration within the literature review included the evolution of fluency research, the relationship between fluency, prosody, and comprehension, and fluency within the context of English learners. Additionally, the literature review encompassed the strategy of repeated reading with and without audio-assistance and its …


Toward Intentional Praxis: A Design Thinking Multi-Case Study Of Cognitive-Constructive Toolkit Implementation In An Elementary Professional Learning Community, Azam Nathaniel Jul 2026

Toward Intentional Praxis: A Design Thinking Multi-Case Study Of Cognitive-Constructive Toolkit Implementation In An Elementary Professional Learning Community, Azam Nathaniel

Dissertations

Among several learning theories that were dynamic and constantly evolving with time, cognitive and constructive theories were predominant in the field of education. However, these theories often included overlapping and contrasting concepts, contributing to confusion in terminology among teachers and limited explicit use in instructional practice. Within the context of K-12 education, teachers demonstrated conceptual awareness of cognitive and constructive learning theories; however, the theories were not a part of day-to-day conversations and were minimally identified in practice. Instead, the theories were implicitly applied as teachers balanced competing professional responsibilities, including daily routines, syllabus requirements, district standards, new initiatives, differentiated …


Building Adaptive Leaders: Examining The Relationship Between Undergraduate Co-Curricular Leadership Roles, Change Readiness, And Leadership Self-Efficacy, Reneldo N. Randall Jul 2026

Building Adaptive Leaders: Examining The Relationship Between Undergraduate Co-Curricular Leadership Roles, Change Readiness, And Leadership Self-Efficacy, Reneldo N. Randall

Educational Leadership & Workforce Development Theses & Dissertations

The contemporary workforce is characterized by ongoing organizational change, requiring individuals to demonstrate adaptability and the capacity to lead within evolving conditions. Institutions of higher education increasingly emphasize leadership development as a mechanism for preparing students for these demands; however, limited empirical research has examined how participation in formal co-curricular undergraduate leadership roles relates to students’ readiness to engage with organizational change. This study addresses the gap by examining the relationship between leadership self-efficacy and resistance to change among undergraduate student leaders.

Guided by the Leadership Identity Development (LID) model, this quantitative study employed a non-experimental, correlational design. Data were …


Professional Dispositions In Coaching Education: Icf-Credentialed Coaches’ Perspectives On Development And Assessment, Michelle Renee Thompson Jul 2026

Professional Dispositions In Coaching Education: Icf-Credentialed Coaches’ Perspectives On Development And Assessment, Michelle Renee Thompson

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

This qualitative phenomenological study examined how professional dispositions were defined, experienced, and assessed in coaching education within the rapidly expanding field of professional coaching. The problem addressed was the lack of a clear understanding of professional dispositions in coaching and the absence of a systematic dispositional assessment comparable to that in counselor education. The researcher’s purpose was to explore how credentialed professional-level coaches defined and identified professional dispositions for effective coaching engagements and how these dispositions aligned with constructs in other helping professions. The researcher collected data through semistructured videoconference interviews. Purposeful and snowball sampling yielded 16 U.S.-based coaches who …


A Perspective As Observed By Public Middle School Teachers On A Lack Of Empathy Demonstrated By Public Middle School Students, Gail P. Hall Jul 2026

A Perspective As Observed By Public Middle School Teachers On A Lack Of Empathy Demonstrated By Public Middle School Students, Gail P. Hall

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

 

The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to explore a perspective as observed by public middle school teachers on a lack of empathy demonstrated by public middle school students. The research analyzed how public middle school teachers in the southern region of Texas described their perception of how a lack of empathy demonstrated by public middle school students impacted students during the school day. The study involved 10 selected participants who participated in a semistructured open-ended interview on the Google Meet platform. The participants consisted of 90% female and 10% male, with a combined total of 91 years of …


Attendance And Academic Performance: A Comparison Of 4-Day And 5-Day School Week Schedules In Texas High Schools, Cynthia Miles Jul 2026

Attendance And Academic Performance: A Comparison Of 4-Day And 5-Day School Week Schedules In Texas High Schools, Cynthia Miles

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

This quantitative cross-sectional comparable study examined the differences in academic performance and attendance in Texas public high school campuses between those operating on a 4-day instructional week and those operating on a 5-day instructional week. The study used a quantitative, cross-sectional comparable design. The analysis included campus-level data from the Texas Education Agency’s Texas Academic Performance Reports. The independent variable was instructional schedule—either a 4-day or a 5-day instructional week. The dependent variables included campus attendance rates and student performance on the English I and Algebra I End-of-Course (EOC) STAAR (State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness) assessments of ninth-grade …


Black Brilliance By Design: Culturally Affirming Strategies For High School And Postsecondary Success, Kirsten E. Thornton Jul 2026

Black Brilliance By Design: Culturally Affirming Strategies For High School And Postsecondary Success, Kirsten E. Thornton

Education Dissertations

College and career readiness and access programming aims to prepare students for postsecondary enrollment and success. The intentional implementation of college and career readiness programming was introduced to address the achievement gap in educational outcomes, including but not limited to: graduation rates, college enrollment, college retention, and viable career opportunities. However, Black students who graduate high school and are not adequately academically and socially prepared for postsecondary education compared to their white and non-white counterparts. Current college and career readiness frameworks lack a culturally-relevant lens necessary to effectively address the unique needs of the Black communities in achieving college readiness. …


Implementing Student Choice Through Social-Emotional Learning To Support Independence And Motivation In Elementary Education, Allison Sloan Jul 2026

Implementing Student Choice Through Social-Emotional Learning To Support Independence And Motivation In Elementary Education, Allison Sloan

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects

Most people feel more motivated and invested in the work they are doing when they have a voice in the matter. This remains true for elementary students with their school work. This capstone paper analyzes and compares research articles to answer the guiding question: How can classroom strategies grounded in SEL and student choice promote independence while supporting diverse learning needs? The guiding question and project were created due to a noticeable lack of choice being represented and provided in elementary classrooms. The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between student choice, social-emotional learning, and student independence …


Hmong Cultural Literacy Curriculum To Preserve The Hmong Language And Culture, Pa Kou Vang Jul 2026

Hmong Cultural Literacy Curriculum To Preserve The Hmong Language And Culture, Pa Kou Vang

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects

The Hmong language is considered a dying language as Hmong youth feel the pressure to assimilate into American culture and language while adapting to economic and survival needs in the United States. The curriculum designed for this project uses the concept of culturally sustaining pedagogy, which provides a theoretical framework for designing an instructional unit focused on Hmong language, history, and cultural identity. The purpose of this capstone was to develop an instructional unit that supports Hmong language and cultural preservation among Hmong students at the secondary grade level. To inform the curriculum’s development, a comparative study was conducted in …


Supplementing Middle School Students’ Science Education With A Unit Design That Incorporates Outdoor, Nature-Based Programming, Tasha Sopp Jul 2026

Supplementing Middle School Students’ Science Education With A Unit Design That Incorporates Outdoor, Nature-Based Programming, Tasha Sopp

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects

This project seeks to address the research question: how to develop a standards-aligned, nature-based field trip program that promotes authentic scientific inquiry for middle school students and supplements their learning? This project consists of a five-week ecology unit designed for 7th grade students that incorporates a nature-based field trip component as an anchoring phenomenon. Key influences of the curriculum from the literature review include the integration of inquiry-based instruction alongside the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), three-dimensions of science learning, and influences of nature-based, place-based programming throughout the unit and within the field trip component. Research suggests that hands-on, explorative, …


How Can Bison Conservation And Reintroduction Onto Native Prairie Habitat Increase Land Health And Restore Indigenous Cultural Importance?, Malaney Peterson Jul 2026

How Can Bison Conservation And Reintroduction Onto Native Prairie Habitat Increase Land Health And Restore Indigenous Cultural Importance?, Malaney Peterson

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects

For millenia, bison roamed the native prairie by the millions, stretching from the rain shadow of the Rocky Mountains to the Mississippi River, and from Canada down to Texas. This once thriving ecosystem quickly went from thriving to near extinction within a few decades after the arrival of Europeans in North America. The downfall of the bison was a strategic plan devised not only to eliminate bison, but also indigenous peoples and the prairie on which they lived. According to research, both bison and the native prairie are considered to be ecologically extinct, meaning they will never be able to …


How Can Implementing A Consistent Social And Emotional Learning Curriculum In An Elementary School Setting Promote Academic Success And Help The Overall Well-Being Of Our Teachers And Students?, Joseph Rydel Jul 2026

How Can Implementing A Consistent Social And Emotional Learning Curriculum In An Elementary School Setting Promote Academic Success And Help The Overall Well-Being Of Our Teachers And Students?, Joseph Rydel

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects

Elementary schools are seeing an increase in students' social, emotional, and behavioral needs, making it more difficult for teachers to meet the needs of their students. While research shows that Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) can improve behavior, academic performance, and overall well-being, many schools still do not have a consistent curriculum to teach these skills. The purpose of this capstone project was to explore how implementing a consistent SEL curriculum in an elementary school setting can improve academic success while supporting the overall well-being of both students and teachers.

To answer this question, I created a project that reviewed …


Arts Integration In Special Education, Emily Sanderson Jul 2026

Arts Integration In Special Education, Emily Sanderson

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects

This capstone examines the use of arts integration interventions in special education services. Art is inherently adaptable and can be used to create engaging lessons accessible to all learners. Grounded in inclusive education, constructivist, social-emotional learning, disability identity, and self-determination theories, the literature review examines how arts-integrated activities can support students with disabilities in communication and expression, emotional and behavioral development, and cognitive and academic engagement, as well as impact students’ identity, autonomy, and social development. Building on this research, the author studied the Welsh school system at Aberystwyth University, visiting five local schools and interviewing twelve teachers of students …


Skills-Based Classrooms In Adult Education, Svetlana Quirk-Lazarev Jul 2026

Skills-Based Classrooms In Adult Education, Svetlana Quirk-Lazarev

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects

In today's rapidly evolving labor market, skills-based and hands-on learning have become central to adult lifelong education. Numerous studies highlight that "learning by doing" is the preferred and most effective approach for adults, who increasingly seek education that aligns with real-world demands and career advancement. Despite the growing emphasis on skills-based learning, gaps remain between educational programs and real-world expectations.

To understand how a skills-based course can affect employability outcomes for adult learners, we must first examine the root barriers in adult education. Adult learners face a very different set of obstacles compared to children. As cited further, some of …


Increasing Engagement Among Reluctant Learners: The Impact Of A High Interest Ela Media Analysis Unit In Secondary Classrooms, Anab Muqtar Jul 2026

Increasing Engagement Among Reluctant Learners: The Impact Of A High Interest Ela Media Analysis Unit In Secondary Classrooms, Anab Muqtar

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects

In the world of secondary education, figuring out how to engage our most reluctant students is one of the most difficult lessons for an early career educator to learn. This struggle during my early years of teaching prompted this capstone’s curricular focus. This capstone project sought to answer the following research question: How can a high interest ELA media analysis curricular unit impact the engagement of reluctant learners in a secondary grade level ELA course? Research found that through incredibly intentional curricular design, teachers can engage our most struggling students. Reconnecting students with their purpose for learning and teaching them …


Moving Minds: Regulation Through Rhythm A Cross-Cultural Exploration Of Movement, Music, Wellbeing, Learner Voice, And Inclusion In Elementary Education In Wales And The United States, Steven Nasshan Jul 2026

Moving Minds: Regulation Through Rhythm A Cross-Cultural Exploration Of Movement, Music, Wellbeing, Learner Voice, And Inclusion In Elementary Education In Wales And The United States, Steven Nasshan

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects

This capstone project explored how movement, music, wellbeing, learner voice, and inclusive educational practices observed in Wales can inform classroom instruction in the United States. Originally conceived as a project to develop movement-based interventions for students with Emotional Behavioral Disorders (EBD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), the study evolved into a cross-cultural qualitative exploration following participation in a study abroad experience in Wales. The guiding research question asked: How are movement-, music-, and wellbeing-based practices used in elementary classrooms in Wales compared with the United States, and how can these findings inform the development of practical resources that support student …


Teaching Writing To Secondary Students In An Age Of Ai, Justine Morris Jul 2026

Teaching Writing To Secondary Students In An Age Of Ai, Justine Morris

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects

Writing teachers in secondary schools across the world have seen a surge of student work written by artificial intelligence (AI), which has led to many new challenges. These challenges include: additional time spent grading, more conflict with students and parents, and an overall lack of resources to address AI use in the classroom. This capstone works to respond to some of these new challenges by exploring the skills built through the writing process and how AI may support or hinder these skills. This project is based on cognitive theory and observations of schools in both the United States and Wales. …


Read. Click. Grow: Comparing Digital And Traditional Print-Based Approaches To Support Foundational Reading Development In Elementary Classrooms, Carla Pliego-Java Jul 2026

Read. Click. Grow: Comparing Digital And Traditional Print-Based Approaches To Support Foundational Reading Development In Elementary Classrooms, Carla Pliego-Java

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects

Early literacy instruction provides an essential foundation for children’s long-term academic development, while the increasing presence of digital technology has changed how young students encounter and interact with text. This capstone examines how early literacy instruction supported by digital tools compares to traditional print-based instruction in supporting foundational reading development in elementary classrooms. The project was informed by research on early literacy development, evidence-based literacy instruction, digital literacy, traditional print-based instruction, technology integration, and equity and access. The research process also included qualitative observations and conversations with educators during a study abroad experience in Aberystwyth, Wales, which were compared with …


Beyond Behavior Control: Teacher Identity And Relationship-Based Classroom Management In Elementary Classrooms, Alayna Marrero Jul 2026

Beyond Behavior Control: Teacher Identity And Relationship-Based Classroom Management In Elementary Classrooms, Alayna Marrero

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects

Classroom management is one of the most challenging responsibilities teachers face, yet many educators enter the classroom feeling underprepared to address complex student behaviors while also creating supportive learning environments. This capstone explored the question: How can professional development focused on teacher identity and relationship-based classroom management support elementary teachers in creating supportive, consistent, and positive classroom environments? Through a review of current literature, this project examines the connections between teacher identity, student-teacher relationships, classroom climate, social-emotional learning, trauma-informed practices, and effective professional development. Influential scholars including Beauchamp and Thomas, Jennings and Greenberg, Hamre and Pianta, Gregory et al., Perry …


From Avoidance To Proud Ownership: Cultivating A Passion For Reading Through Project-Based Learning, Jessica Miller Jul 2026

From Avoidance To Proud Ownership: Cultivating A Passion For Reading Through Project-Based Learning, Jessica Miller

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects

This capstone project examines how structured student choice embedded within a project-based reading curriculum can support engagement and comprehension among reluctant elementary readers. The curriculum was developed in response to the challenges experienced by students who disengage from reading or develop negative perceptions of themselves as readers. Instead of viewing reading reluctance as a fixed characteristic, this project explores how instructional decisions, student autonomy, reading identity, and meaningful opportunities to demonstrate learning may impact students’ relationships with reading. The development of the curriculum was guided by a research-informed design process rooted in literature on reluctant readers and reading identity, reading …


Finding The Confidence To Speak: Reducing Public Speaking Anxiety In Secondary English Students, Nickolas Johnson Jul 2026

Finding The Confidence To Speak: Reducing Public Speaking Anxiety In Secondary English Students, Nickolas Johnson

School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects

Public speaking is an essential academic, professional, and civic skill, yet many secondary students experience anxiety when asked to speak in front of peers and when assigned a presentation. This capstone project explored the question: How can secondary English language arts teachers develop methods to decrease anxiety around students who struggle with public speaking? The end result of this project is a Google Site resource guide that is designed for secondary English language arts teachers. The site provides background information on public speaking anxiety in the classroom, a bank of low-stakes speaking activities that can be used independently or in …