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Full-Text Articles in Music Pedagogy

Mapping The Double-Tongue: Incorporating Body Mapping Into The Double-Tonguing Learning Process, Camilla Yoder Jan 2024

Mapping The Double-Tongue: Incorporating Body Mapping Into The Double-Tonguing Learning Process, Camilla Yoder

Theses and Dissertations--Music

As the articulation technique of double-tonguing is becoming more necessary and desirable for oboists to learn, this document explores the benefits of incorporating Body Mapping methods and kinesthetic awareness exercises into the double-tonguing learning process. These methods of body exploration are applied only to the areas of the body deemed highly relevant to accomplishing double-tonguing: the atlanto-occipital joint, the temporo-mandibular joint, the throat, the tongue, and the roof of the mouth. To explore the effectiveness of this approach, an Institutional Review Board approved research study was conducted, in which eight oboists learned double-tonguing with a preliminary iteration of this method. …


Understanding The Effects Of Hormone Treatments On The Transgender Singer: A Pedagogical Study And Voice Studio Guide, Erin M. Hannon Jan 2024

Understanding The Effects Of Hormone Treatments On The Transgender Singer: A Pedagogical Study And Voice Studio Guide, Erin M. Hannon

Theses and Dissertations--Music

Transitioning from one gender to another can be an arduous and emotionally charged experience, accompanied by many physical and mental transformations. The journey of self-discovery and vocal explorations is both unique and deeply personal. Modifications that emerge in an individual's vocal characteristics have a profound influence on their capacity to communicate and express themselves.

Transgender vocal students and professional singers must navigate the delicate balance between their vocal and gender identities while considering the possible risks of Gender Affirming Hormone Therapy. Though these therapies may significantly alter one's appearance and overall well-being, they are also capable of causing notable declines …


Gesture And The Auditory Impact On The Perception Of Sound: A Performance Guide For Understanding Gestural Function On Percussion Pedagogy And Performance, Emily Lane Durocher Jan 2023

Gesture And The Auditory Impact On The Perception Of Sound: A Performance Guide For Understanding Gestural Function On Percussion Pedagogy And Performance, Emily Lane Durocher

Theses and Dissertations--Music

I will address the concept of physical gestures and discuss how they are applicable to the way percussionists visually and audibly perceive music. Through my research, I will focus on performance and pedagogy, seeking new possibilities for introducing percussionists at all ability levels to different articulations. Percussionists have traditionally been led to believe that they do not have the versatility over the initial musical attack and sustain that wind and string players do. This document has been developed to provide a more in-depth approach to how physical and musical gestures can function to create a more versatile and musical percussionist. …


A History Of Educational Concerts Of The Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra, Sean Radermacher Jan 2023

A History Of Educational Concerts Of The Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra, Sean Radermacher

Theses and Dissertations--Music

This project illuminates the history of educational concerts of the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra (PSO) and reveals a legacy of performances for young audiences, today’s educational innovations, and the orchestra’s evolving mission to serve young people. Concerts for young people are an important facet of the history of American orchestras. Today, these concerts and other educational programs are essential to increase the accessibility of orchestral music.

The PSO’s history highlights the close relationship of American orchestras with an educational mission from their early years to the present. After an overview of the origins of permanent orchestras and the national context of …


A Contextual History And Modern Edition Of J. Hyde’S 1799 English Trumpet Treatise: A New And Compleat Preceptor For The Trumpet & Bugle Horn: With The Whole Of Cavalry Duty As Approved Of And Ordered By His Royal Highness The Duke Of York … To Which Is Added A Selection Of Airs, Marches & Quick Steps For Three Trumpets, A Scale Of The Chromatic Trumpet With Airs Adapted For It, And A Collection Of Bugle Horn Duets, Clinton Gregory Linkmeyer Jan 2023

A Contextual History And Modern Edition Of J. Hyde’S 1799 English Trumpet Treatise: A New And Compleat Preceptor For The Trumpet & Bugle Horn: With The Whole Of Cavalry Duty As Approved Of And Ordered By His Royal Highness The Duke Of York … To Which Is Added A Selection Of Airs, Marches & Quick Steps For Three Trumpets, A Scale Of The Chromatic Trumpet With Airs Adapted For It, And A Collection Of Bugle Horn Duets, Clinton Gregory Linkmeyer

Theses and Dissertations--Music

For much of the trumpet’s long and varied history, it was considered a practical tool used for signaling more so than a music-making instrument. In 1614, Cesare Bendinelli wrote his Tutta L’arte Della Trombetta, which is often recognized as the first musical treatise written for trumpet. Scholars also recognize two other texts as being significant treatises: Girolamo Fantini’s Modo per imparare a sonare di tromba (1638), and Johann Ernst Altenburg’s Trumpeters’ and Kettledrummers’ Art (1795). The compilation and composition of A New and Complete Preceptor for the Trumpet and Bugle Horn by John Hyde in 1799 places it not only …


Polyrhythmic Pathways: Using Bimanual Coordination Research To Develop A New Framework For Practice, Performance, And Pedagogy, Christian Swafford Jan 2023

Polyrhythmic Pathways: Using Bimanual Coordination Research To Develop A New Framework For Practice, Performance, And Pedagogy, Christian Swafford

Theses and Dissertations--Music

This study reviews and compares percussion literature pertaining to polyrhythms and scientific literature pertaining to bimanual coordination. There exists a gap in the pedagogical approach to polyrhythms, and there is much disagreement between common instructional methods, especially when considered against the findings of several bimanual coordination studies. The purpose of this study is to reveal insight to the percussion community that the learning of polyrhythms is facilitated by the brain in novel ways, and the uniqueness of this learning process requires a rethinking of the current pedagogical approach. Percussion articles, method books, popular literature, and music scores are surveyed alongside …


Musical Portraiture In Acht Korte Karakterschetsen Voor Piano Vierhandig By Hans Osieck, Yuri Kim Jan 2023

Musical Portraiture In Acht Korte Karakterschetsen Voor Piano Vierhandig By Hans Osieck, Yuri Kim

Theses and Dissertations--Music

Hans Osieck (1910-2000) was a Dutch composer, pianist, and teacher. His musical portraits, Acht Korte Karakterschetsen voor piano vierhandig (Eight Short Character Sketches for Four Hands), are a valuable addition to the piano duo repertoires for intermediate and advanced students. In Eight Sketches, Osieck musically portrays eight of his students using simple compositional techniques, much like the brushstrokes and color palette of an artistic portrait. As a result of their programmatic nature and relatable subjects, Osieck’s Eight Sketches can be particularly useful for students developing their imaginations and learning to perform expressively. As a piano duo, Eight Sketches also serves …


The Three E’S Of Horn Repertoire: From Excerpts To Etudes To Employment, Briana Pepilascov-Childers Jan 2023

The Three E’S Of Horn Repertoire: From Excerpts To Etudes To Employment, Briana Pepilascov-Childers

Theses and Dissertations--Music

This project explores effective solutions for practicing orchestral excerpts, a challenge often faced by young musicians preparing for auditions. It introduces a method of adapting practice ideas and composition to facilitate a more profound understanding of fifteen orchestral excerpts. While primarily directed at horn players, the concepts and techniques explored in this study are applicable to musicians of all instruments, offering specific ideas, practice tips, and original etudes tailored to each excerpt. These etudes serve a dual purpose by addressing technical aspects of both the horn and the excerpt itself while familiarizing the musician with the standard orchestral repertoire commonly …


Momentary Endurance: The Effects Of Mouthpiece Pressure And Capillary Refill Time On Short-Term Muscle Recovery In Trumpet Players, Taylor Gustad Jan 2022

Momentary Endurance: The Effects Of Mouthpiece Pressure And Capillary Refill Time On Short-Term Muscle Recovery In Trumpet Players, Taylor Gustad

Theses and Dissertations--Music

The topic of proper mouthpiece pressure usage has been widely pushed off to the margins of trumpet pedagogy, only receiving the passing mention in a limited number of method books. This research paper contains a cross sectional view of the few, but most prominently used method books in the trumpet community that shows the prevalence of this issue, as well as steps to bring in new and useful information in this field. There are several aspects of mouthpiece pressure that should be studied; however, this paper focuses on its connection to momentary endurance and capillary refill time.

Momentary endurance is …


Choosing Alternative Repertoire: Pedagogical Considerations For Robert Fuchs's Cello Sonata No. 2, Op. 83, Jerram Isaac John Jan 2022

Choosing Alternative Repertoire: Pedagogical Considerations For Robert Fuchs's Cello Sonata No. 2, Op. 83, Jerram Isaac John

Theses and Dissertations--Music

This document serves to promote Robert Fuchs's Cello Sonata No. 2, Op. 83, as a study piece for the cello, piano, and collaborative duo, showing the pedagogical benefits of this Romantic sonata. This project will begin with a biography of Fuchs and background of the work, followed by an analysis that establishes the piece in the Romantic tonal tradition. The next section will discuss the pedagogical benefits of the cello part, the technical accessibility in the piano part, and the collaborative opportunities encountered in the piece, comparing it with other Romantic sonatas in the standard repertoire. Additionally, I will be …


The Hybrid Teacher: Expanding The Vocal Pedagogy Regime, Mary Joy Nelson Jan 2022

The Hybrid Teacher: Expanding The Vocal Pedagogy Regime, Mary Joy Nelson

Theses and Dissertations--Music

The world of professional vocal training is becoming more and more eclectic and demanding in the United States. Academic music programs, and subsequently, vocal and vocal pedagogy programs are still predominantly classical in 2022, due to the American university system’s historical roots. In the 21st century, the commercial music industry is at an all-time high. However, in contemporary academia, vocal and vocal pedagogy degree programs remain primarily classical. In recent years, voice professionals have been discussing the implications of academic programs updating their programs and pedagogy in order to include professional CCM and hybrid training. Classical, CCM and hybrid singers …


A Glimpse Into Chinese Piano Education And Performance Through An Influential Professor, Xin Zhang Jan 2021

A Glimpse Into Chinese Piano Education And Performance Through An Influential Professor, Xin Zhang

Theses and Dissertations--Music

Although China traditionally did not have keyboard instruments of its own origin, the country has taken to the modern piano exceedingly well. In the past decades, piano performance and education have progressed at an impressive rate, its popularity reaching unprecedented heights. The virtuosity of Chinese pianists has earned them prizes at renowned international competitions. These developments have sparked the interest of scholars as well as the general public.

First introduced to China around 1840, the piano was slow to be accepted, but interest grew steadily in the twentieth century. Missionaries and foreigners were the first piano teachers, with figures like …


Songs For High Voice: An Annotated Guide To African Romances, Op. 17 By Samuel Coleridge-Taylor, Makeda Danielle Hampton Jan 2021

Songs For High Voice: An Annotated Guide To African Romances, Op. 17 By Samuel Coleridge-Taylor, Makeda Danielle Hampton

Theses and Dissertations--Music

African Romances, Op. 17, composed in 1897 by African-British composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor (1875-1912), is a collection of seven songs for high voice that is uniquely both African and American. The lyrics of this song cycle were first published in the book Majors and Minors, a collection of poems published in 1895 by Paul Laurence Dunbar (1872-1906).

An analysis of resources supports that academic discourse in Black vocal music has been underrepresented due to the absence of centralized information, such as published scores, recorded materials, catalogs, and guides for study and performance. While in depth research focusing on the art …


Teacher Perspectives On The Influence Of Participation In Dalcroze Training In The K–12 Music Classroom: A Mixed Methods Study, Holly Smith Jan 2021

Teacher Perspectives On The Influence Of Participation In Dalcroze Training In The K–12 Music Classroom: A Mixed Methods Study, Holly Smith

Theses and Dissertations--Music

The purpose of this mixed methods study was to examine the teacher perspectives on the influence of participation in Dalcroze training in the K–12 music classroom. A primary goal was to investigate how Dalcroze training influenced music teachers’ classroom instructional practices. An explanatory sequential mixed methods design was use for this study. Participants (N = 91) completed a cross-sectional survey, the Dalcroze Training Experience Questionnaire (DTEQ). Interview participants (N = 6) were selected using stratified sampling based on their years of Dalcroze experience and not demographic characteristics. Each participated in one semi-structured interview.

Quantitative data was analyzed using a …


Beyond The Notation: Developing Tools To Guide Artistic Decisions Of Performers In The Wind Ensemble, Brent Johnson Jan 2021

Beyond The Notation: Developing Tools To Guide Artistic Decisions Of Performers In The Wind Ensemble, Brent Johnson

Theses and Dissertations--Music

Music is a subjective art form that is enhanced by emotional connection and understanding of the relationship of line and phrasing to both the performer and the audience. Performers and conductors are charged with making artistic decisions about the expressive qualities of a phrase within moments of seeing the notation for the first time. In the development of wind ensembles, there is often a disconnect between the technique and accuracy of a musician’s performance and the emotional connection and understanding required to perform a lyrical melody or phrase within a piece of music. As musicians progress, often the attention is …


Ictus Or Rebound? The Experience Of Behind-The-Beat Playing In Orchestral Conducting, Sey Ahn Jan 2020

Ictus Or Rebound? The Experience Of Behind-The-Beat Playing In Orchestral Conducting, Sey Ahn

Theses and Dissertations--Music

The origin of playing behind-the-beat is attributed to the Hungarian conductor Arthur Nikisch (1855-1922), who is one of the most important figures in the history of the art of conducting. Nikisch, serving as Music Director of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, the Berlin Philharmonic, and the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra during a critical moment in the development of orchestral playing, influenced a generation of conductors who followed. Behind-the-beat playing, as many conductors and musicians refer to in describing experiences of top professional orchestral musicians, is a prevailing characteristic of theirs, not often observed in amateur orchestras and their conductors. It is an …


A Performance Analysis Of Cloud Folk For Percussion Octet And Piano By John Psathas, James Vilseck Jan 2020

A Performance Analysis Of Cloud Folk For Percussion Octet And Piano By John Psathas, James Vilseck

Theses and Dissertations--Music

John Psathas is the one of the most forefront, living New Zealand composers and is considered to be one of the three most important living composers of the Greek Diaspora. His music is performed across the globe, most notably as the opening and closing ceremony music for the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, Greece. His percussion music has been championed by percussionists for three decades, starting with Dame Evelyn Glennie with the work Matre’s Dance. Psathas still receives regular commissions for percussion instruments, having released multiple works in the last few years and multiple works still to be premiered.

The …


A Performer’S Guide To Norman Bolter’S Morning Walk For Trombone And Piano, Justin Croushore Jan 2020

A Performer’S Guide To Norman Bolter’S Morning Walk For Trombone And Piano, Justin Croushore

Theses and Dissertations--Music

For the past 45 years, Norman Bolter has been one of the most prolific and important composers, performers, and educators for the trombone. Born in Minnesota in 1955, Bolter held the position of Second Trombone of the Boston Symphony Orchestra and Principal Trombone of the Boston Pops from 1975 until 2009. He has taught at leading conservatories, universities, and festivals around the world and continues to teach as trombone faculty at the New England Conservatory and the Boston Conservatory today. His compositional output is large and wide-ranged, including works for solo trombone, trombone and piano, trombone ensemble, chamber ensemble, band, …


Compositional Modeling: A Classical Imitative Pedagogy For The Modern Era, Robert Harris Jeter Jan 2020

Compositional Modeling: A Classical Imitative Pedagogy For The Modern Era, Robert Harris Jeter

Theses and Dissertations--Music

Students of composition develop two skills simultaneously: craft and creativity. Since students are more naturally inclined to focus on one of these skills over the other, finding the proper balance is an educational challenge. An effective pedagogical system for composition cultivates both of these necessary skills.

Imitation was a preferred pedagogical approach during the Classical period. In his 1848 book School of Practical Composition, Carl Czerny instructs his readers to apply the extensive rules of composition by strictly following a compositional model. Although this methodology lost favor during the nineteenth century, the imitative techniques presented by Czerny are flexible enough …


An Exploration Of Smetana’S Z Domoviny (From My Homeland), Two Pieces For Violin And Piano, Jb 1:118, Yeseul Kim Jan 2020

An Exploration Of Smetana’S Z Domoviny (From My Homeland), Two Pieces For Violin And Piano, Jb 1:118, Yeseul Kim

Theses and Dissertations--Music

Z domoviny (From My Homeland), by Bedřich Smetana (1824-84), is among the most colorful and effective works for violin and piano of the 19th century, and yet it is not as well-known, nor as often performed, as many other works by Antonín Dvořák, Johannes Brahms, Pablo de Sarasate, Henryk Wieniawski and their contemporaries. This document will attempt to balance the work’s place in the repertoire and provide a performer’s guide. It consists of an historical background of the composition, including a biography of Smetana; a discussion of his compositional technique and style, along with an exploration of his nationalistic …


Songs In The Heart: The Cornet Solos Written For Derek Smith, Jeffrey Barrington Jan 2020

Songs In The Heart: The Cornet Solos Written For Derek Smith, Jeffrey Barrington

Theses and Dissertations--Music

Derek Smith stands as one of the most talented cornet soloists of his generation. From the 1940s to the early 1970s, Smith wowed audiences all over the world with the ease of his technique and the simple vibrato of his beautiful expressive sound. While much has been documented regarding Smith’s later years as the conductor of The Salvation Army’s New York Staff Band, there is a gap in written biographical knowledge concerning his career as a cornet soloist. During his influential career, there were several solos written specifically for him. The purpose of this research is two‐fold. First, it is …


Engaging The Eclectic Bulgarian Soul In Viola Concerto No. 1 By Marin Goleminov (1908-2000): A Faceted Analysis With New Pedagogical Studies, Lubitza Braikova Jan 2020

Engaging The Eclectic Bulgarian Soul In Viola Concerto No. 1 By Marin Goleminov (1908-2000): A Faceted Analysis With New Pedagogical Studies, Lubitza Braikova

Theses and Dissertations--Music

The main purpose of this monograph is to provide a faceted study of Marin Goleminov’s Concerto for Viola No.1, a work of art complexly revealing its creator’s constructive study of style – including national style. It is hoped that this will, among other things, assist in deepening relevant performances and researches.

This document examines the M. Goleminov Concerto for Viola and Orchestra no.1, 1950 (Концерт за Bиола и Oркестър Hомер 1 Марин Големинов, р.1908–п.2000). It would bring essential features of it to the attention of a broader audience, perhaps beginning with inquisitive violists. If, with the necessary selectivity, …


Steven Bryant’S The Automatic Earth: A Conductor’S Analysis And Performance Perspectives, Corey S. Bonds Jan 2020

Steven Bryant’S The Automatic Earth: A Conductor’S Analysis And Performance Perspectives, Corey S. Bonds

Theses and Dissertations--Music

The purpose of this research is to present a conductor’s analysis and performance perspectives of The Automatic Earth, composed by Steven Bryant for the Arizona State University Wind Orchestra, and premiered by its conductor, Professor Gary Hill, at the 2019 College Band Director’s National Association National Conference. Through the conductor’s analysis and performance perspectives, the author seeks to provide future conductors and performers with necessary musical interpretations and technical guidance. The four-part process of research includes: 1. detailed analysis of the musical score of The Automatic Earth, 2. observation of rehearsals and world premiere of the work, 3. in-depth …


The Taiwanese Violin System: Educating Beginners To Professionals, Yu-Ting Huang Jan 2020

The Taiwanese Violin System: Educating Beginners To Professionals, Yu-Ting Huang

Theses and Dissertations--Music

The purpose of this study is to provide scholars information concerning of the Taiwanese violin educational system from the introduction of the violin in Taiwan to its current status as one of the most popular instruments to study.

The first chapter of this dissertation will discuss the most influential violin educators in Taiwan, about which very little has been published. The key figures such as Fu-Xing Zhang and Shu-De Li capitalized on the opportunities provided them by the Japanese occupation, playing a crucial role in the development of the Taiwanese music education system. The accomplishments of these musicians continue to …


A Singer’S Stress: Yoga And Meditation Techniques In The Collegiate Voice Studio, Zackery David Morris Jan 2019

A Singer’S Stress: Yoga And Meditation Techniques In The Collegiate Voice Studio, Zackery David Morris

Theses and Dissertations--Music

Often neglected in voice study is the understanding that a singer’s instrument lives in his/her body and therefore cannot be packed away like other musical objects. Yoga and mindfulness compliment the belief of a whole body instrument. Data gathered on college campuses report that stress and anxiety are on the rise, thus reinforcing the need for MBSR and yoga as beneficial and proven tools for stress relief. The current state of research in the realm of mental health in colleges merits the study of a cohesive layout of these exercises and their expected outcomes in singing as well as stress …


Finding The “Tech” In Technique: A Pedagogical Approach To Electroacoustic Concert Percussion Performance Practice, William Brady Harrison Ii Jan 2019

Finding The “Tech” In Technique: A Pedagogical Approach To Electroacoustic Concert Percussion Performance Practice, William Brady Harrison Ii

Theses and Dissertations--Music

Premise and Objectives

In our increasingly technology driven society, the impact of technology touches nearly every aspect of our lives in some form or another. This has been acutely felt within the world of percussion, with electroacoustic works representing perhaps the most rapidly expanding area of concert percussion over the last twenty years. Electroacoustic music couples electronic technology with traditional acoustic instruments and/or performance practices.

Broadly, this paper outlines a systematic approach to teaching electroacoustic performance practice, based on elements found in a cross-section of percussion literature. In using such an approach, not only does each student become more capable …


A Performance Guide To Arthur Bliss's Sonata For Viola And Piano, Andrew Braddock Jan 2019

A Performance Guide To Arthur Bliss's Sonata For Viola And Piano, Andrew Braddock

Theses and Dissertations--Music

Arthur Bliss’s Sonata for Viola and Piano stands as a significant achievement in early twentieth-century chamber music for viola and is the result of a fruitful collaboration between composer and virtuoso performer. Multiple scholars recognize the sonata as one of Bliss’s finest works. Despite these accolades, the work has failed to attract sustained scholarly investigation. This document provides performers with the necessary tools for a thorough and contextualized presentation of the work. The main body of this study details the technical aspects of performing the sonata: viola technique, expressive challenges, and ensemble concerns. Preceding this, I cover the relevant biographical …


A Study Of The Varying Interpretations Of The Opening Flute Solo In Debussy’S Prelude A L’Apres-Midi D’Un Faune Through 90 Years Of Sound Recordings; With Special Consideration For The Performances And Pedagogy Of William Kincaid, Virginia W. Tutton Jan 2018

A Study Of The Varying Interpretations Of The Opening Flute Solo In Debussy’S Prelude A L’Apres-Midi D’Un Faune Through 90 Years Of Sound Recordings; With Special Consideration For The Performances And Pedagogy Of William Kincaid, Virginia W. Tutton

Theses and Dissertations--Music

Claude Debussy's Prelude a l’apres-midi d’un faune [Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun] opens with an unaccompanied flute solo that famously tests breath control, tone production, and capacity for musical expression. All aspiring flutists must master this solo, because it is frequently requested on orchestral and collegiate auditions. To aid flutists in their preparation, many notable pedagogues and performers have provided written and verbal commentary with suggestions for crafting a successful performance; however, it is unclear whether or not actual performances reflect these teachings. In other words, do the pedagogues practice what they preach? This study uses audio analysis …


Undergraduate Music Theory Terminology Used By Selected Spanish-Speaking Instructors In Chile: Development, Similarities, And Limitations, Enrique Sandoval-Cisternas Jan 2018

Undergraduate Music Theory Terminology Used By Selected Spanish-Speaking Instructors In Chile: Development, Similarities, And Limitations, Enrique Sandoval-Cisternas

Theses and Dissertations--Music

Six Chilean music theory instructors participated in an anonymous survey applied over an online platform between April and October of 2017. These instructors were invited to participate in this study because of their role in teaching music theory at influential institutions, each of which is ranked among the top ten best universities in Chile. The questions included in the survey relate to the terminology used to refer to music elements upon which current American music theory textbooks consistently agree, and that are usually taught during the first two years of undergraduate studies in accredited American music schools: types of cadences, …


The Language Of Music: Linguistics In Trumpet Pedagogy, Marisa B. Youngs Jan 2018

The Language Of Music: Linguistics In Trumpet Pedagogy, Marisa B. Youngs

Theses and Dissertations--Music

For decades, many brass teachers have relied heavily upon speech as a means of conveying pedagogical concepts. Additionally, a significant number of teachers in the brass community continue to use speech sounds to teach specific kinesthetic responses (i.e. using specific vowels for tone production, particular consonants for articulation, and variations of vowels for different pitch registers). These teaching concepts have been perpetuated over time, though many intricate aspects of human anatomy were yet to be understood at the inception of these methods, including the physiological processes used during speech. As technology has evolved, researchers in the field of linguistics have …