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Full-Text Articles in Film and Media Studies

Enjoying The Golden Screen Of Asian American Representation In A Colorblind Era: Neoliberalism, Narrative, And Negotiation, Jered Mabaquiao Jan 2026

Enjoying The Golden Screen Of Asian American Representation In A Colorblind Era: Neoliberalism, Narrative, And Negotiation, Jered Mabaquiao

English Dissertations - Archive

This dissertation contributes to Asian American studies, Cinema and Media Studies, and Critical Theory by interrogating how contemporary Asian American representation is shaped by the intertwined pressures of racial politics, neoliberal market demands, and psychic life. Working across race studies, media studies, psychoanalysis, and phenomenological questions of ontology and being, the project argues that Asian American film and television cannot only be understood  through the language of popular culture representation, narrative progress, media visibility, or political inclusion. Instead, I combine such angles to examine how popular culture media participates in the contradictory production of Asian American subjectivity as culturally present …


From Voice To Noise: Accented Speech, Constructed Languages, And Subtitling Practices As Markers Of Difference, Alice Alonso Limongi Jan 2026

From Voice To Noise: Accented Speech, Constructed Languages, And Subtitling Practices As Markers Of Difference, Alice Alonso Limongi

Course Work

This monograph explores three main strategies of vocal exotification in Anglophone film: representations of accented speech, inclusion of constructed languages, and non-subtitling of snippets of other languages. Using Stuart Hall’s encoding/decoding framework, I approach these practices as rhetorical devices that both construct and are constructed by the complexity of our social landscapes. Portrayals of accented speech, constructed languages, and subtitling practices form a gradient of abstraction, where the denotative meaning of words gradually loses importance to the sonic characteristics of the voice. Combining broader cultural scholarship from Edward Said, sound studies writings on power and language from Nina Sun Eidsheim …


Procedural Rhetoric And Prosociality: How Game Mechanics Shape Altruistic Decision-Making, Elijah Emory-Muhammad Jan 2026

Procedural Rhetoric And Prosociality: How Game Mechanics Shape Altruistic Decision-Making, Elijah Emory-Muhammad

CMC Senior Theses

This study investigates how different prosocial video game designs influence subsequent altruistic behavior, specifically comparing interactive narratives with procedural rhetoric. While prior research demonstrates that prosocial games can prime helpful behaviors, less is known about the underlying mechanical structures driving these effects. Fifteen participants engaged with either an Interactive Narrative Game (ING) or a Procedural Rhetoric Game (PRG) before completing a resource allocation task (Dictator Game). Results revealed no statistically significant differences between the two conditions in promoting sacrificial altruism or satisfying basic psychological needs. Instead, participants across both groups demonstrated a strong adherence to an equality-seeking norm, consistently choosing …


To Print A Remake: An Analysis Of Hollywood Remakes And Their Cultural Value, Connor F. Seaton Jan 2026

To Print A Remake: An Analysis Of Hollywood Remakes And Their Cultural Value, Connor F. Seaton

Honors Undergraduate Theses

In recent years, audiences and movie critics have expressed concern that Hollywood’s growing reliance on remakes, sequels, franchises, and similar adaptations has led to a broader worry that originality is fading from modern cinema and that the industry is instead focused on using adaptations to maximize profits. Although adaptation is often seen as a commercially driven framework for reproducing existing intellectual property in a new media format, this thesis argues that it should be recognized as an autonomous cultural category with its own artistic, historical, and social significance and merit. By analyzing adaptation scholarship and reviewing its complex historical development, …


Science Fiction Cinema And The Technological Sublime: Spectacle And The Infinite From Early Cinema To Digital, David Jackson Dr. Jan 2026

Science Fiction Cinema And The Technological Sublime: Spectacle And The Infinite From Early Cinema To Digital, David Jackson Dr.

Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive)

This dissertation examines how science fiction cinema constructs and reimagines the technological sublime in the twentieth century: the experience of awe, terror, and admiration provoked by human-made power and scale. Drawing on the philosophical foundations of the sublime in Edmund Burke and Immanuel Kant and extending through Leo Marx’s and David E. Nye’s theorization of the technological sublime, I propose an aesthetic mode in which representation inflected with affect translates technological spectacle into examinations of humanity’s role and agency in the face of overwhelming technologized worlds and in some cases, even the universe itself.

Through three distinct historical periods …


To Us For Every Decision We Make: A Deleuzian And Guattarian Criticism Of The Films "To Me The One Who Loved You And To Every You I'Ve Loved Before", Elstenn Nicholas Misa, Chino Samuel C. Sta. Ana, Ayed Anthony N. Velasco, Nathaniel Rey D. Ferrer Dec 2025

To Us For Every Decision We Make: A Deleuzian And Guattarian Criticism Of The Films "To Me The One Who Loved You And To Every You I'Ve Loved Before", Elstenn Nicholas Misa, Chino Samuel C. Sta. Ana, Ayed Anthony N. Velasco, Nathaniel Rey D. Ferrer

Sinaya: A Philippine Journal for Senior High School Teachers and Students

Anime has emerged not only as a form of entertainment but also as a cultural and philosophical medium exploring concepts such as identity, decision-making, and existential dilemmas. Despite its growing influence in both global and Filipino contexts, little scholarly attention has been given to how philosophical frameworks like Deleuze and Guattari’s can be applied to analyze such narratives. The study analyzed To Every You I’ve Loved Before (2022) and To Me The One Who Loved You (2022) while applying Deleuze and Guattari’s philosophical approach to understand how decisions, with identity formation and social norms, affect character development. The research applies …


Untouchable Beauty Of Everyday Aesthetics In Wim Wenders’ Perfect Days, Nindya Galuh Fatmawati, Agni Saraswati Dec 2025

Untouchable Beauty Of Everyday Aesthetics In Wim Wenders’ Perfect Days, Nindya Galuh Fatmawati, Agni Saraswati

Paradigma: Jurnal Kajian Budaya

Wim Wenders, in his latest film Perfect Days (2023), presents an everyday aesthetic experience conveyed through a visually striking aesthetic characterized by a "peaceful" gaze. This study aims to explore the everyday aesthetics depicted in Perfect Days, which align with traditional Japanese aesthetics, specifically wabi-sabi. The analysis is framed using Todd McGowan's Cinema of Desire theory. The research employs a qualitative descriptive method to examine the subject and utilizes a Psychoanalytic approach for analysis. The findings reveal that object ‘a’ in Perfect Days is highlighted through mise-en-scène and music, as these two cinematic elements facilitate a moment of …


Vatican Kiseki Chousakan As Philosophy Of Religion: The Intersections Of Faith, Science, And Philosophy In An Anime Adaptation, Carl Jayson D. Hernandez Nov 2025

Vatican Kiseki Chousakan As Philosophy Of Religion: The Intersections Of Faith, Science, And Philosophy In An Anime Adaptation, Carl Jayson D. Hernandez

Philosophy Department Faculty Publications

Ideas concerning religion are often communicated through popular media, such as anime. One of the anime adaptations that explicitly engages the intersections of religion, science, and philosophy is Vatican Kiseki Chousakan. This anime adaptation centers on a special unit from the Vatican that verifies miraculous phenomena worldwide. In this study, I reflect on how the anime representation communicates religious ideas about miracles, prophecies, and other spiritual matters to its viewers. This critical reflection reveals how anime promotes a philosophical view centered on the complementary relationship between religion and science. With these in mind, this study proceeds as follows. The first …


The Construction And Reflection Of The Theoretical Knowledge System Of Chinese Literature And Art:Summary Of The 16th Annual Conference Of The Chinese Association For Theory Of Literature And Art, Qianpeng Gu Oct 2025

The Construction And Reflection Of The Theoretical Knowledge System Of Chinese Literature And Art:Summary Of The 16th Annual Conference Of The Chinese Association For Theory Of Literature And Art, Qianpeng Gu

Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art

No abstract provided.


Différance, Transparency And Truth: Jean-Luc Nancy On Beauty, Zhizhong Zhang Oct 2025

Différance, Transparency And Truth: Jean-Luc Nancy On Beauty, Zhizhong Zhang

Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art

In God, Justice, Love, Beauty, Jean-Luc Nancy thoroughly elucidates his perspectives on beauty, extending beyond the confines of conventional epistemological aesthetics by introducing deconstructionism to the discourses on aesthetic issues. Specifically, Nancy reinterprets the legend of Narcissus, positioning its theme as the movement of beauty's self differentialspacing, and unveiling the différance inherent in beauty. However, as a generalized spacing movement, différance cannot highlight the singularity of beauty. Consequently, through an analysis of douard Manet's painting Reading, Nancy contends that beauty, as a motion of meaning that transcends signification, can only be represented as being of near-nothingness, that is, as a …


Dufrenne's Genetic Phenomenological Explanation Of “Affective A Priori”, Ziming Huang Oct 2025

Dufrenne's Genetic Phenomenological Explanation Of “Affective A Priori”, Ziming Huang

Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art

The discussion on the nature of the affective in phenomenology can be traced back to the debate on the universality of the aesthetic affective in modern epistemological aesthetics. Dufrenne interpreted it from the perspective of genetic phenomenology and identified it as a problem of “affective a priori.” The “affective” is an object of feeling triggered by the work and constituted by the subject; and “a priori” is a means of preforming the object within the subject. As the constituent structure of the object, the affective a priori indicates the unity of the objective cosmological a priori and …


Rita Felski's Critique Of Contextualism: Taking Rem Koolhaas And Bruno Latour As A Clue, Lijun Su Oct 2025

Rita Felski's Critique Of Contextualism: Taking Rem Koolhaas And Bruno Latour As A Clue, Lijun Su

Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art

With a special nested structure, Rita Felski follows and finalizes Rem Koolhaas and Bruno Latour's manifesto of “Context Stinks!” The three theorists of different disciplines such as architecture, sociology and literature take context as a conservative proposition. In response to the contextualist paradigm that is threatened by self-limitation, self-exclusion and generalization, Koolhaas creates space for innovation through the strategy of “bigness”, while Latour questions the theory of social entities, introducing non-human actors into a new coordinate system. Based on them, Felski tries to remold the future of literature within the framework of actor-network theory, in order to forestall text from …


Derrida's Theory Of Sovereignty—And His Criticism Of Robinson Crusoe, Jinlong Xiao Oct 2025

Derrida's Theory Of Sovereignty—And His Criticism Of Robinson Crusoe, Jinlong Xiao

Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art

The 20th century has witnessed an unprecedented exploration and development of the concept of human essence in the Western theoretical community. In the early 20th century, Heidegger proposed that human essence was existence. Later, Foucault argued that human essence was power. By the end of the 20th century, Derrida clearly pointed out that human essence was neither pure existence as advocated by the existentialists, nor pure power, as claimed by the power theorists. Instead, it is something between existence and power: the “powerization” of existence, which Derrida termed “sovereignty.” The operating rhythm of sovereignty involves the autonomy of automation, specifically …


Atmosphere And Artistic Appeal (Qi Yun): An Unfinished Reflection On The Modern Interpretation Of “Artistic Appeal And Rhythmic Vitality” From The Perspective Of Atmosphere Aesthetics, Lei Li Oct 2025

Atmosphere And Artistic Appeal (Qi Yun): An Unfinished Reflection On The Modern Interpretation Of “Artistic Appeal And Rhythmic Vitality” From The Perspective Of Atmosphere Aesthetics, Lei Li

Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art

Drawing from the traditional binary thinking of subject-object division and confrontation, the modern interpretation of “artistic appeal and rhythmic vitality” since the twentieth century considers it either as an aesthetic feature or the overall spirit of the artwork, or as the painter's inner harmony and resonance, failing to fully realize that the ideal effect of “artistic appeal and rhythmic vitality” can only be generated by the two-way communication and resonance between the creator and the object. In the light of the aesthetics of atmosphere, “artistic appeal” is a special category or an advanced state of atmosphere that arises from the …


A Study Of The Historical Formation Of The “Fengyao” Pattern And The “Touchun” Pattern In Five-Character Metrical Poetry, Zhao Zhang Oct 2025

A Study Of The Historical Formation Of The “Fengyao” Pattern And The “Touchun” Pattern In Five-Character Metrical Poetry, Zhao Zhang

Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art

Since the Song dynasty, the touchun pattern has referred to the five-character metrical poetry in which the antithesis is used in the first couplet rather than the second; the fengyao pattern has referred to those in which the antithesis is only used in the third couplet. These two patterns began to flourish in the works of Shen Quanqi and Song Zhiwen. During the High Tang dynasty, they were equated in number with the standard format of metrical poetry. It was not until the Dali era that they were finally confirmed as variant formats of five-character metrical poetry. This trend of …


A New Explanation Of The Connotation And Poetic Significance Of “Poetry Springs From Emotions And Hence Reads Beautifully” In Rhapsody On Literature, Yanfeng Cai, Xiaoli Wei Oct 2025

A New Explanation Of The Connotation And Poetic Significance Of “Poetry Springs From Emotions And Hence Reads Beautifully” In Rhapsody On Literature, Yanfeng Cai, Xiaoli Wei

Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art

Traditionally, “poetry springs from emotions and hence reads beautifully” in Rhapsody on Literature has been interpreted primarily within the poetic context of expressing emotions and aspirations, often overlooking the broader connotation of “emotion” and the logical relationship between “springing from emotions” (yuanqing) and “beautiful” (qimi). Two key concepts are essential in understanding of this sentence. The first is “emotions”, which has been widely used to denote an objective state, essence, and reality since the pre-Qin era. Recognizing the objective meaning of “emotion” is crucial for a correct understanding of the poetic connotation of “springing from emotions”. …


New Changes In The Theater Ecology In The Late-Qing Shanghai: A Study Based On Wang Guifen's Contract Payment Lawsuit, Chunning Zhao Oct 2025

New Changes In The Theater Ecology In The Late-Qing Shanghai: A Study Based On Wang Guifen's Contract Payment Lawsuit, Chunning Zhao

Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art

Contract payment lawsuits discussed in this paper were disputes over rights and interests arising from the operation of modern xiqu (Chinese opera). During Wang Guifen's performances in Shanghai, he was involved in such lawsuits with quite a few theaters, including Xin Dangui, Tianxian, Liuchun, Tianfu, and Guixian. The practice of inviting and recruiting famous actors with high contract payments was a common form of commercial competition in Shanghai's theaters, and it was also the direct cause of job-hopping by well-known actors and their involvement in legal disputes. The high contract payments intensified malicious competition between theaters, hindered the healthy development …


A Semiotic Interpretation Of Landscape Painting And Its Limitations: A Focus On Duan Lian, Yiqing Liu, Zhijie Sun Oct 2025

A Semiotic Interpretation Of Landscape Painting And Its Limitations: A Focus On Duan Lian, Yiqing Liu, Zhijie Sun

Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art

Duan Lian has offered a semiotic interpretation of the history of landscape painting. He argues that the formation, development, divergence and decline of landscape painting are all conveyed through the form of images. This constitutes an interaction of image symbols from form to concept, providing new perspectives and paradigms for the study of landscape painting and semiotics. However, regarding the transcendence of landscape painting, we contend that Duan Lian's semiotic interpretation of landscape painting cannot fully capture its intrinsic aesthetics and spirit, as this approach may lead to an underestimation and weakening of the artistic essence of landscape painting. Semiotics, …


Education For The Average Person And The Celestial-Human Strategy In Ancient Poetry Education: Pedagogical Choices In The Context Of The Li-Du And Su-Huang Debates, Shugong Zhao Oct 2025

Education For The Average Person And The Celestial-Human Strategy In Ancient Poetry Education: Pedagogical Choices In The Context Of The Li-Du And Su-Huang Debates, Shugong Zhao

Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art

As early as the Wei and Jin dynasties, Chinese literary culture developed a marked adulation of genius. Yet, poetry education took a distinct approach, which favored models not solely based on genius. In discussions contrasting Li Bai and Du Fu, Li Bai was esteemed for his rare natural gift, while Du Fu was valued for his profound intellectual insight. Similarly, in the Su-Huang debates, Su Shi was praised for innate talent, while Huang Tingjian was noted for his disciplined scholarship. Despite these distinctions, poetry education consistently recommended emulating figures like Du Fu and Huang Tingjian. This choice reflects the ancient …


“The Poetics Of Graphite Stone Paintings” And The Quality Of Modern Scholars' Paintings: Wu Changshuo And Pan Tianshou As Examples, Zhongyi Xia Oct 2025

“The Poetics Of Graphite Stone Paintings” And The Quality Of Modern Scholars' Paintings: Wu Changshuo And Pan Tianshou As Examples, Zhongyi Xia

Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art

To identify why only “the poetics of graphite stone paintings” in Wu Changshuo and Pan Tianshou's works deserve to be referred to as representative of “modern scholars' paintings,” several issues need clarification. First, what is the boundary between “paintings by scholars” and “paintings by literati?” Second, how does one identify Wu's “stubborn stone” not only as a kind of “scholarly painting,” but also as “modern?” Third, how does one recognize Pan's “massive rock” as a “scholarly painting” worthy of being called “modern?” The response is as follows. Firstly, “scholarly painting” is rooted in tranquility and introverted in the self-sanctity of …


On “Posthumanism”, Martin Crowley Oct 2025

On “Posthumanism”, Martin Crowley

Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art

The label “posthumanism” identifies neither a doctrine, nor an intellectual or analytical approach with a defining set of protocols. Rather, we may take “posthumanism” as a term loosely applied to a range of contributions and approaches, on the basis of a generally under-specified collection of sympathies and commitments. Approximately stated, these sympathies and commitments would entail the claim that — with due allowance for historical variation — the category of “the human” has long played a key role at the centre of Western thought; that this role has included serving to justify the promotion of human beings above other forms …


The Invention Of Tradition: From Ancient “Articles” To May Fourth “Literature” — A Concurrent Explanation Of The Connotation Of “Chinese Literary Theory”, Xu Xu Oct 2025

The Invention Of Tradition: From Ancient “Articles” To May Fourth “Literature” — A Concurrent Explanation Of The Connotation Of “Chinese Literary Theory”, Xu Xu

Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art

This article focuses on the relationship between literary views and article studies of May Fourth scholars from the perspective of hermeneutics, in order to re-explain the connotation of “Chinese literary theory” and consider the construction of a Chinese literary theory discourse system. Rooted in interpretations of the interplay between literature and dao, May Fourth scholars reshaped the traditional framework, shifting the focus to the relationship between literature and humanity, through the integration of ideals and dao. Their commitment to broad, applied literary views led to a progression from a simple division between cultural traits and literary function to a more …


Cinema Illuminating Reality: Media Philosophy Through Buddhism, Teng-Kuan Ng Oct 2025

Cinema Illuminating Reality: Media Philosophy Through Buddhism, Teng-Kuan Ng

Journal of Religion & Film

This is a book review of Victor Fan, Cinema Illuminating Reality: Media Philosophy through Buddhism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2022)


Hermeneutical Priming And Linguistic Hijacking In The God’S Not Dead Series, Brant Entrekin Oct 2025

Hermeneutical Priming And Linguistic Hijacking In The God’S Not Dead Series, Brant Entrekin

Journal of Religion & Film

In this paper, I analyze the evangelical Christian film series God's Not Dead. I argue that the film series functions as Christian Nationalist propaganda through its rhetoric and aesthetic choices. I then develop two forms of epistemic manipulation that the film uses to fulfill its propagandistic function: hermeneutical priming and linguistic hijacking. I suggest that the film series' use of these rhetorical strategies highlights some of the ways that evangelical Christian cinema is engaging with rising right-wing political movements and developing unique evangelical imaginations.


Social Capital And Mobility Of Starling Madura Coffee Traders In Jakarta, Yeni Priana, Manneke Budiman Jul 2025

Social Capital And Mobility Of Starling Madura Coffee Traders In Jakarta, Yeni Priana, Manneke Budiman

International Review of Humanities Studies

This study aims to generate knowledge about the social capital underlying the resilience of Starling Madura coffee traders in Jakarta. The idea that underlies this analysis is Bourdieu's social capital theory, in which social capital formed through networks is able to provide independence in overcoming social and economic problems. In addition to social capital, mobility strategies are utilized as opportunities by Starling Madura coffee traders in an effort to survive sustainably in the context of the informal economic order in Jakarta. This study provides data and analysis that strengthen the idea that Starling Madura coffee traders adopt distinctive social capital …


Indian Cosmology And Archaeoastronomy Of The Khmer Stone Temples In Sakon Nakhon-Thailand, Duangden Boonpok Jul 2025

Indian Cosmology And Archaeoastronomy Of The Khmer Stone Temples In Sakon Nakhon-Thailand, Duangden Boonpok

International Review of Humanities Studies

This article is multidisciplinary study of cosmology, archaeology and astronomy of the Khmer stone temples in Sakon Nakhon. The study investigates of the temple’s architectural structure and environmental geography which related to the astronomical knowledge. The result of study found that the plan and structure of temples is influenced by the concept of Indian cosmology which has Mount Meru as the central axis. Buildings is signified as mountain or heaven with high and multi-layered base. The main building is symbolically important as the origin of power for the whole temple. The objects and positions are the transforming of cosmology concept …


Representation Of Women’S Role In Sumbanese Ikat Weaving (Tenun Ikat), Tasya Widya Krisnadi Jul 2025

Representation Of Women’S Role In Sumbanese Ikat Weaving (Tenun Ikat), Tasya Widya Krisnadi

International Review of Humanities Studies

The craft of weaving is not merely an economic or artistic activity, but also plays a central role in the identity and social life of the Sumba community, particularly in the Kodi District of Southwest Sumba Regency. Women in Sumba play a crucial role in the practice of tenun ikat. They are not only the custodians of the skills and technical knowledge of weaving, but also the bearers of cultural values embedded in the process. This research aims to reveal the role of Sumbanese women as preservers of tradition amidst the currents of modernization. This study employs qualitative methods with …


The Influence Of The Dutch East Indies Government’S Ethnic Politics On Discrimination Against The Chinese Ethnic Group In Batavia (1946–1950), Zaky Rizqy Zaidaan Fadrin, Fajar Muhammad Muhammad Nugraha Jul 2025

The Influence Of The Dutch East Indies Government’S Ethnic Politics On Discrimination Against The Chinese Ethnic Group In Batavia (1946–1950), Zaky Rizqy Zaidaan Fadrin, Fajar Muhammad Muhammad Nugraha

International Review of Humanities Studies

This study explains how discrimination was experienced by ethnic Chinese in Batavia in the early post-independence period in 1946–1950, with an emphasis on the influence of ethnic politics practiced by the Dutch East Indies colonial government. The purpose of this study is to analyze the pattern of discrimination against ethnic Chinese influenced by the legacy of colonial racial segregation. The method used is qualitative historical descriptive. The main sources of this study come from letters of complaint from the Chinese community in 1946–1949 in the National Archives of the Republic of Indonesia (ANRI) and newspaper articles from 1950 from De …


The Comparison Of Classical Tafsir And Contemporary Interpretation Regarding The Verses Of Astrophysics And Cosmology In The Qur’An, Azra Ansharullah, Basuni Imamuddin Jul 2025

The Comparison Of Classical Tafsir And Contemporary Interpretation Regarding The Verses Of Astrophysics And Cosmology In The Qur’An, Azra Ansharullah, Basuni Imamuddin

International Review of Humanities Studies

As time progressed, various kinds of discoveries in the field of science emerged one by one, especially in the field of Astronomy and its "little brother" Astrophysics. This opens up opportunities for everyone to research things that have been researched from a new perspective, such as researching the Koran from a science and technology perspective. There are 310 instances in the Qur'an where the word "heaven" is mentioned, and within them, there are various statements regarding the nature, phenomena, and other things related to the sky. With the progress of technology, there is undoubtedly a gap in the interpretation and …


The British Colonial Land Policy And The Development Of Plantation Agriculture In Colonial Southwestern Nigeria, Adesola S. Adesote Jul 2025

The British Colonial Land Policy And The Development Of Plantation Agriculture In Colonial Southwestern Nigeria, Adesola S. Adesote

International Review of Humanities Studies

The main thrust of this paper is to critically analyse the impact of the colonial land policy of the British on plantation agriculture in colonial Southwestern Nigeria. Although land legislation had been introduced as far back as the late 19th century, such as the Public Lands Ordinance of 1876 later renamed the Public Lands Acquisition Ordinance of 1917, it was vigorously pursued with the imposition of colonial rule in the period between 1900 and 1960. It argued that the introduction of land policy by the British in order to achieve her economic objective in Nigeria led to the commercialisation …