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Articles 1 - 30 of 68
Full-Text Articles in Psychology
Potential Moderating Impact Of Circulating Endocannabinoids On Resting State Networks And Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Emily Anne Albertina
Potential Moderating Impact Of Circulating Endocannabinoids On Resting State Networks And Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Emily Anne Albertina
Theses and Dissertations
Introduction: Traumatic injury increases risk for long-term adverse outcomes such as the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Research has found that risk for the development of PTSD after such an injury varies depending on individuals’ race/ethnic group and sex. Although prior work has explored relationships between injury and PTSD in these groups utilizing imaging paradigms (e.g., resting state functional connectivity) and biological paradigms (e.g., the endocannabinoid system), the relationship between these factors has been understudied. The present study explored the potential moderating effect circulating endocannabinoids may have on the relationship between resting state functional connectivity and post traumatic stress …
The Biological Bases Of Political Attachment: Neurobiological Correlates Of Ideology And Partisanship, Carisa Bergner
The Biological Bases Of Political Attachment: Neurobiological Correlates Of Ideology And Partisanship, Carisa Bergner
Theses and Dissertations
To fully understand the foundations of political attachments in an increasingly polarized environment, political scientists must reconcile traditional theories of political attitudes and behavior with insight gained from neurobiological approaches. The purpose of this research is to investigate the neurobiological correlates of strength of political ideology and partisanship, as well as the neurobiological correlates of ideological and partisan orientation. To do so, both structural and functional neuroimaging analyses were conducted on a diverse sample of patients at a Level 1 Trauma Center. Results indicate that strong ideological attachment is significantly associated with decreased volume in the left insula, though partisan …
Individual Differences In Structure Learning, Philip Newlin
Individual Differences In Structure Learning, Philip Newlin
Theses and Dissertations
Humans have a tendency to impute structure spontaneously even in simple learning tasks, however the way they approach structure learning can vary drastically. The present study sought to determine why individuals learn structure differently. One hypothesized explanation for differences in structure learning is individual differences in cognitive control. Cognitive control allows individuals to maintain representations of a task and may interact with reinforcement learning systems. It was expected that individual differences in propensity to apply cognitive control, which shares component processes with hierarchical reinforcement learning, may explain how individuals learn structure differently in a simple structure learning task. Results showed …
Effect Of Neighborhood Socioeconomic Disadvantage On Brain Functional Connectivity And Structural Properties In Trauma-Exposed Adults, Elisabeth Kathleen Webb
Effect Of Neighborhood Socioeconomic Disadvantage On Brain Functional Connectivity And Structural Properties In Trauma-Exposed Adults, Elisabeth Kathleen Webb
Theses and Dissertations
Though there has been substantial progress towards understanding brain-behavior relationships and characterizing the neurobiology of psychiatric disorders, research has not translated as expected into novel prevention and treatment of mental health conditions. One limitation may be the emphasis on individual-level variables (e.g., income) and omission of relevant area-level factors (e.g., neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage). Recently, attention has been directed towards identifying the biological mechanisms by which neighborhoods impact mental health. The chronic stress associated with living in a disadvantaged neighborhood promotes a cascade of maladaptive events, which in turn impact brain structure and functioning. The processes affected by chronic neighborhood stressors …
Resting State Functional Connectivity In The Default Mode Network: Relationships Between Cannabis Use, Gender, And Cognition In Adolescents And Young Adults, Megan Ritchay
Theses and Dissertations
Introduction: Cannabis is the most commonly used illicit substance in the United States, and nearly 1 in 4 young adults are current cannabis users. The psychoactive component of cannabis, THC, is active at cannabinoid receptors, type 1, or CB1 receptors. CB1 receptors play a critical role in neural development, and chronic cannabis use causes desensitization and downregulation of these receptors. Chronic cannabis use is associated with changes in resting state functional connectivity (RSFC) in the default mode network (DMN) in adolescents and young adults, although results are somewhat inconsistent across studies, likely due to differing methodologies. Additionally, cannabis effects appear …
Effects Of A Novel, Non-Toxic Histone Deacetylase Inhibitor On Hippocampal Memory Formation, Histone Acetylation, And Bdnf Gene Expression In Male Mice, Sarah Brianna Beamish
Effects Of A Novel, Non-Toxic Histone Deacetylase Inhibitor On Hippocampal Memory Formation, Histone Acetylation, And Bdnf Gene Expression In Male Mice, Sarah Brianna Beamish
Theses and Dissertations
Memory dysfunction is a common symptom of aging, neuropsychiatric disorders, and neurodegenerative disorders, yet truly effective treatments for memory loss do not exist. De novo gene transcription is a molecular requirement for long-term memory formation. The transcription of genes related to synaptic plasticity and learning are regulated in part by histone acetylation, an epigenetic mechanism that regulates chromatin accessibility. Pharmacological compounds that maintain histone acetylation, called histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi), enhance memory by preventing deacetylation of core histone proteins, which initiates binding of transcriptional machinery to open chromatin. Therefore, HDACi are potentially promising therapeutics that could be used to prevent …
Neural Substrates Of Fear Generalization And Its Associations With Anxiety And Intolerance Of Uncertainty, Ashley Ann Huggins
Neural Substrates Of Fear Generalization And Its Associations With Anxiety And Intolerance Of Uncertainty, Ashley Ann Huggins
Theses and Dissertations
Fear generalization - the tendency to interpret ambiguous stimuli as threatening due to perceptual similarity to a learned threat – is an adaptive process. Overgeneralization, however, is maladaptive and has been implicated in a number of anxiety disorders. Neuroimaging research has indicated several regions sensitive to effects of generalization, including regions involved in fear excitation (e.g., amygdala, insula) and inhibition (e.g., ventromedial prefrontal cortex). Research has suggested several other small brain regions may play an important role in this process (e.g., hippocampal subfields, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis [BNST], habenula), but, to date, these regions have not been examined …
Behavioral And Neural Correlates Of Episodic Memory Regulation, Mrinmayi Kulkarni
Behavioral And Neural Correlates Of Episodic Memory Regulation, Mrinmayi Kulkarni
Theses and Dissertations
Episodic memory retrieval, while critical for daily living, needs to be regulated to maintain goal-directed behavior. Past work has shown that episodic memory regulation engages brain regions involved in cognitive control, such as the dorsolateral and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. These regions interact with the medial temporal lobe structures to control retrieval processes. In the current study, I paired eye-tracking, a sensitive index of memory, with fMRI in a novel paradigm to address several open questions in the field of episodic memory regulation. Participants initially encoded three celebrity faces and three tools with multiple indoor and outdoor scenes. In a subsequent …
Behavioral, Physiological, And Molecular Characterization Of Long-Term Administration Of A Novel Estrogen Receptor Beta Agonist In A Mouse Model Of Menopause, Aaron William Fleischer
Behavioral, Physiological, And Molecular Characterization Of Long-Term Administration Of A Novel Estrogen Receptor Beta Agonist In A Mouse Model Of Menopause, Aaron William Fleischer
Theses and Dissertations
The menopausal loss of circulating hormones, including estrogens, is associated with negative symptoms, such as hot flashes, anxiety and depression, cognitive decline, and weight gain. Although estrogenic hormone therapies (HT) prevent many of the negative symptoms related to the menopausal transition, these same therapies are associated with increased health risks, such as the development of breast and ovarian cancers, which is mediated by the activation of the a (ERa), but not b (ERb), estrogen receptor isoform. Furthermore, ERb agonism has previously been shown to reduce preclinical indices of hot flashes, memory decline, anxiety, and depression. As most ERb agonists are …
Functional Responding To Appetitive Faces Among Cannabis-Using Adolescents And Young Adults, Ryan Michael Sullivan
Functional Responding To Appetitive Faces Among Cannabis-Using Adolescents And Young Adults, Ryan Michael Sullivan
Theses and Dissertations
Cannabis use is associated with attenuated reward signaling, yet few studies have examined this relationship when viewing rewarding appetitive faces while undergoing functional neuroimaging. Furthermore, few neuroimaging analyses have examined the moderating role of gender on task-based fMRI outcomes. This study explored functional BOLD response elicited by appetitive faces while engaged in an affective go/no-go task, and specifically investigated the differences between cannabis-using and control groups, whether gender moderate findings, and brain-behavior associations. Participants (ages 16-26 years) were scanned after at least 3-weeks of monitored abstinence (cannabis-using group = 35; control group = 33). The findings demonstrated aberrant activation in …
Neural Correlates Underlying The Interactions Between Anxiety And Cannabis Use In Predicting Motor Response Inhibition, Richard Ward
Neural Correlates Underlying The Interactions Between Anxiety And Cannabis Use In Predicting Motor Response Inhibition, Richard Ward
Theses and Dissertations
The ability to effectively withhold an inappropriate response is a critical feature of cognitive control. Prior research indicates alterations in neural processes required for motor response inhibition in anxious individuals, including those with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and those who engage in regular cannabis use. However, thus far most research has examined how anxiety-related symptoms and cannabis use influence response inhibition in isolation of one another. The current study examined the interactions between anxious symptomology and recent cannabis use in a sample that recently experienced a traumatic event using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during the completion of a Stop-Signal …
Restorative Potential And Working Memory Capacity Of Exposure To Vegetation In Indoor Built Environments, Jee Heon Rhee
Restorative Potential And Working Memory Capacity Of Exposure To Vegetation In Indoor Built Environments, Jee Heon Rhee
Theses and Dissertations
This research seeks to understand how natural elements – specifically, vegetation in the indoor environment - influence people’s ability to restore attention and working memory capacity. Previous research demonstrates the benefits of nature on human beings in various ways. For instance, numerous studies show the positive effects of nature on stress reduction (Hartig, Mang, & Evans, 1991; Ulrich et al., 1991) and attention restoration (Staats, Kieviet, & Hartig, 2003). However, most of these studies focus on the effect of nature in outdoor settings. Relatively few studies focus on the presence of natural elements indoors. This is an important gap in …
Inactivation Of Nucleus Reuniens Impairs Spatial Memory In Mice, Miranda Schwabe
Inactivation Of Nucleus Reuniens Impairs Spatial Memory In Mice, Miranda Schwabe
Theses and Dissertations
Episodic memory is a complex process requiring input from several regions of the brain. Coordinated activity in the Dorsal Hippocampus (DH) and medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC) is required for episodic memory consolidation. Our laboratory demonstrated that simultaneous subthreshold chemogenetic inactivation of the dorsal hippocampus (DH) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) impairs the consolidation of object placement (OP) and object recognition (OR) memory in female mice (Tuscher et al., 2018), suggesting that these two brain regions work in concert to promote memory consolidation. However, the mechanisms through which the DH and mPFC interact to promote memory consolidation remain poorly understood. A …
Data-Driven Approach To Dynamic Resting State Functional Connectivity In Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Carissa Weis
Data-Driven Approach To Dynamic Resting State Functional Connectivity In Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Carissa Weis
Theses and Dissertations
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a heterogenous psychological disorder that may result from exposure to a traumatic event. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), symptoms of PTSD have been associated with aberrations in brain networks that emerge in the absence of a given cognitive demand or task, called resting state networks. Most previous research in resting state networks and PTSD has focused on aberrations in the static functional connectivity among specific regions of interest (ROI) in the brain and within canonical networks constrained by a priori hypotheses. However, dynamic fMRI, an approach that examines changes in brain network characteristics over …
The Impact Of Task Load On Neural Entrainment To Attended Speech: A Dual-Task Magnetoencephalography (Meg) Paradigm, Michelle Tamar Kassel
The Impact Of Task Load On Neural Entrainment To Attended Speech: A Dual-Task Magnetoencephalography (Meg) Paradigm, Michelle Tamar Kassel
Theses and Dissertations
Speech comprehension in a noisy environment requires active cognitive control mechanisms to select the relevant speech signal while filtering out irrelevant distractions. When processing speech in a multitask scenario, neural resources underlying cognitive control are considerably burdened and interfering information becomes more difficult to ignore. The present study utilized magnetoencephalography (MEG) to investigate the impact of multitasking on selective attention to speech. Twenty healthy adults performed a multitask paradigm with varying levels of both competing auditory distraction and concurrent visual working memory load. While increased visual working memory load was associated with reduced selective attention to speech in both the …
The Association Of Aerobic Fitness With Resting State Functional Connectivity And Verbal Learning And Memory In Healthy Young Adults, Kyle Joseph Jennette
The Association Of Aerobic Fitness With Resting State Functional Connectivity And Verbal Learning And Memory In Healthy Young Adults, Kyle Joseph Jennette
Theses and Dissertations
The beneficial effects of exercise and cardiopulmonary fitness on general health, quality of life, and reduction of mortality are well known in older adults. There is evidence to support the positive effects of exercise and aerobic fitness on psychiatric and neurocognitive function in children, adults, and older adults. Indeed, many studies have explored the positive effects of aerobic fitness on slowing cognitive decline associated with normal and pathological aging. However, comparatively fewer empirical studies in the literature exist to support and understand the effects of aerobic fitness on the developing brain, particularly during adolescence and young adulthood, especially as it …
Shaped By The Environment: The Influence Of Childhood Trauma Exposure, Individual Socioeconomic Position, And Neighborhood Disadvantage On Brain Morphology, Elisabeth Kathleen Webb
Shaped By The Environment: The Influence Of Childhood Trauma Exposure, Individual Socioeconomic Position, And Neighborhood Disadvantage On Brain Morphology, Elisabeth Kathleen Webb
Theses and Dissertations
The relationship between an individual’s socioeconomic position (SEP) and their overall physical and mental health has been well demonstrated. Far less is known about how area-level factors, such as neighborhood disadvantage, “get under the skin”. Previous research indicates lower SEP and childhood trauma negatively effects brain structure and function. The hippocampus, amygdala, and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) are particularly vulnerable to adversity. The current study investigated how individual SEP, childhood trauma, and neighborhood disadvantage impact these structures. Two-hundred and fifteen individuals were recruited from an Emergency Department in southeastern Wisconsin. Two-weeks post-traumatic injury, participants completed a structural magnetic resonance imaging …
Attention Capture By Episodic Long-Term Memories: Evidence From Eye Movement Data, Allison Eleanor Nickel
Attention Capture By Episodic Long-Term Memories: Evidence From Eye Movement Data, Allison Eleanor Nickel
Theses and Dissertations
Successfully navigating the world on a moment-to-moment basis requires the interaction of multiple cognitive processes. Therefore, studies that examine when and how these fundamental processes interact can provide important insights into how we behave. Many studies indicate that long-term memory can facilitate search for a target object (e.g., contextual cueing), however, the ways in which long-term memory might capture attention and disrupt goal-directed behavior have not been well studied. In five experiments, questions about whether encoded objects might capture attention, even when they are task-irrelevant, were addressed. Each experiment began with an encoding phase, where participants were instructed to commit …
Neural Substrates Of Active Avoidance And Its Impact On Fear Extinction, Elizabeth Parisi
Neural Substrates Of Active Avoidance And Its Impact On Fear Extinction, Elizabeth Parisi
Theses and Dissertations
Models of anxiety suggest that avoidance of a conditioned fear stimulus prevents new safety learning, thereby serving to maintain fear. However, there is little empirical data in humans on the impact of avoidance of conditioned fear stimuli on subsequent fear extinction. In the present study I investigated the effect of avoidance of threat on neural activity during avoidance/control and a subsequent extinction phase using ultra high-resolution (7T) fMRI. Results indicated that active avoidance was associated with increased activity in regions involved in reward prediction, but this did not differentiate active avoidance from an active control condition. Neural activation during the …
How Does Eye Movement Desensitization And Reprocessing (Emdr) Work? An Examination Of The Potential Mechanisms Of Action, Sara Forster
How Does Eye Movement Desensitization And Reprocessing (Emdr) Work? An Examination Of The Potential Mechanisms Of Action, Sara Forster
Theses and Dissertations
A mounting body of evidence suggests that Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing therapy (EMDR) is successful in reducing the impact of posttraumatic symptoms. Although the exact mechanisms of action remain unknown, theories from the psychological to the neuroscientific continue to emerge, expand, and evolve. This study will examine four of the most prominent theories to date and weigh the evidence for and against each one. It will also review, compare, and contrast the theories, evaluate the research supporting each one, and propose the most likely explanation for EMDR's success given the state of the research. Neurobiological mechanisms and correlates as …
Cholesterol: A Possible Mediator Of Apoe Risk For Alzheimer's Disease, Michelle Marie Dunk
Cholesterol: A Possible Mediator Of Apoe Risk For Alzheimer's Disease, Michelle Marie Dunk
Theses and Dissertations
Despite the well-established link between the ε4 allele of the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene and AD, the underlying mechanisms that mediate the risk of developing AD remain elusive. Literature on the role of APOE in cholesterol metabolism suggests that blood cholesterol may be a key factor in the development of AD pathology. Current study aims to investigate whether total cholesterol differs by APOE status and whether this relationship is predictive of AD diagnosis and its biomarkers. Baseline total cholesterol, APOE status, AD diagnosis, global cognitive function, brain Aβ, plasma Aβ40 and Aβ42, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Aβ, tau, and phosphorylated …
Reexamining Object-Based Visual Attention: Understanding The Nature Of Direction-Dependent Attention Shifts, Adam Joseph Barnas
Reexamining Object-Based Visual Attention: Understanding The Nature Of Direction-Dependent Attention Shifts, Adam Joseph Barnas
Theses and Dissertations
Attentional selection is a process by which relevant sensory stimuli are afforded enhanced priority for processing over and above irrelevant sensory stimuli. Object-based attention is a form of selection that leads to preferential processing of visual information contained in/on an attended object versus an unattended object. Observers typically exhibit enhanced performance to a target at an invalidly cued same object location compared to a different-object location, which results in a same object advantage as measured by the response time (RT) difference between these two target locations. A growing body of research has shown that object-based effects are small, inconsistent, and …
Investigating The Contribution Of Instance-Reliant Learning In Visuomotor Adaptation And Its Generalization, Shancheng Bao
Investigating The Contribution Of Instance-Reliant Learning In Visuomotor Adaptation And Its Generalization, Shancheng Bao
Theses and Dissertations
Motor adaptation has been of great interest in the past two decades as it reflects how movement skills are acquired and consolidated by the nervous system. In our recent studies, instance-reliant learning is considered as an essential component of visuomotor adaptation, since it plays a unique role in fast and automatized control of movement output. The goal of this dissertation is to investigate the nature of instance-reliant learning on two aspects: to determine the differential contributions of algorithmic learning and instance-reliant learning to visuomotor adaptation; and to determine the nature of movement instance involved in visuomotor adaptation and its generalization …
Evaluation Of Cognitive Control Using Non-Gaussian Reaction Time Distributions In Fractionated Executive Function Tasks, Dmitriy Kazakov
Evaluation Of Cognitive Control Using Non-Gaussian Reaction Time Distributions In Fractionated Executive Function Tasks, Dmitriy Kazakov
Theses and Dissertations
The present study seeks to further investigate and refine the three-factor model of executive function (EF; Inhibition, Shifting, and Monitoring/Updating) known as the unity/diversity framework (Miyake et al., 2000). Past work in this area utilized “power” tasks that prioritize accuracy and difficulty, but real-world problem-solving incentivizes quick and efficient solutions. Ten computerized reaction time (RT) tasks: four elementary cognitive tasks (ECTs; Jensen, 1987; Santos, 2016) with progressively increasing task demands and six EF tasks. The ratio scale of RT necessitated the use of non-Gaussian statistics to better describe distribution shape, while diffusion modeling (DM; Ratcliff, 1978) was used to interpret …
Cannabis-Using Youth Demonstrated Blunted Rostral Anterior Cingulate Cortex Activation, But Normal Functional Connectivity, During An Emotional Go/No-Go Task, Kristin Elizabeth Maple
Cannabis-Using Youth Demonstrated Blunted Rostral Anterior Cingulate Cortex Activation, But Normal Functional Connectivity, During An Emotional Go/No-Go Task, Kristin Elizabeth Maple
Theses and Dissertations
Cannabis use has been associated with deficits in self-regulation, including inhibitory control. Cannabis users have previously exhibited both structural and functional deficits in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC), a region involved in self-regulation of emotional response and inhibitory control. The present study aimed to examine whether abstinent cannabis users demonstrated abnormal functional activation and connectivity of the bilateral rACC during an emotional inhibitory processing task, and whether gender moderated these relationships. The study also aimed to examine whether bilateral rACC activation and connectivity in cannabis users was related to perceived stress. It was hypothesized that cannabis users would exhibit …
White Matter Integrity In Individuals At-Risk For Ptsd Development: A Longitudinal Investigation, Carissa Weis
White Matter Integrity In Individuals At-Risk For Ptsd Development: A Longitudinal Investigation, Carissa Weis
Theses and Dissertations
Trauma exposure is prevalent and while most are resilient, some go on to develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)—an anxiety-related disorder that results from traumatic experience. The brain changes that result from traumatic experience and PTSD are not well understood. Further, little is known about what distinguishes those who are resilient after trauma from those at risk for developing PTSD. Previous work indicates white matter integrity may be a useful biomarker in predicting PTSD and researchers have found changes in the integrity of three white matter tracts—the cingulum bundle, corpus callosum (CC), and uncinate fasciculus (UF)—in the aftermath of trauma. However, …
Memory-Based Viewing: A Potential Marker Of Pathological Aging, Jenna Blujus
Memory-Based Viewing: A Potential Marker Of Pathological Aging, Jenna Blujus
Theses and Dissertations
Markers of cognitive impairment are needed to distinguish normal from pathological aging prior to the onset of clinical symptomology to improve Alzheimer’s disease (AD) treatment or prevention efforts. AD pathology is believed to develop years or even decades prior to diagnosis in medial temporal lobe subregions that provide input to the hippocampus (Braak & Braak, 1991), disrupting the ability of the hippocampus to bind individual elements of an experience to form cohesive memory representations. Eye movement behavior is a sensitive index of learning and effects of memory on eye movements have been shown to emerge rapidly (within 500-750ms of stimuli …
Memory-Based Viewing: A Potential Marker Of Pathological Aging, Jenna Blujus
Memory-Based Viewing: A Potential Marker Of Pathological Aging, Jenna Blujus
Theses and Dissertations
Markers of cognitive impairment are needed to distinguish normal from pathological aging prior to the onset of clinical symptomology to improve Alzheimer’s disease (AD) treatment or prevention efforts. AD pathology is believed to develop years or even decades prior to diagnosis in medial temporal lobe subregions that provide input to the hippocampus (Braak & Braak, 1991), disrupting the ability of the hippocampus to bind individual elements of an experience to form cohesive memory representations. Eye movement behavior is a sensitive index of learning and effects of memory on eye movements have been shown to emerge rapidly (within 500-750ms of stimuli …
White Matter Integrity In Individuals At-Risk For Ptsd Development: A Longitudinal Investigation, Carissa Weis
White Matter Integrity In Individuals At-Risk For Ptsd Development: A Longitudinal Investigation, Carissa Weis
Theses and Dissertations
Trauma exposure is prevalent and while most are resilient, some go on to develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)—an anxiety-related disorder that results from traumatic experience. The brain changes that result from traumatic experience and PTSD are not well understood. Further, little is known about what distinguishes those who are resilient after trauma from those at risk for developing PTSD. Previous work indicates white matter integrity may be a useful biomarker in predicting PTSD and researchers have found changes in the integrity of three white matter tracts—the cingulum bundle, corpus callosum (CC), and uncinate fasciculus (UF)—in the aftermath of trauma. However, …
Contextually Modulated Avoidance Behavior In Rats Post-Pavlovian Extinction, Lauren Branigan
Contextually Modulated Avoidance Behavior In Rats Post-Pavlovian Extinction, Lauren Branigan
Theses and Dissertations
The following study sought to examine the psychological substrates of renewal (e.g.., context dependent extinction processes) for conditioned avoidance behaviors in rats. Using signaled active avoidance conditioning, rats acquired two-way shuttle responding, to two different auditory stimuli. These behaviors were then extinguished through exposure to the auditory stimuli where shuttling behavior was now without consequence. Subjects were then tested for renewal of avoidance in three distinct renewal sequences (e.g., ABA vs ABB, AAB vs AAA, and ABC vs ABB) in three separate groups of rats. It was found that subjects showed more responding to a stimulus presented outside of its …