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Articles 1 - 30 of 90
Full-Text Articles in Counseling
Assessment Of Professional Counseling Dispositions: A Content Validity Analysis, Patrick R. Mullen, Jacob Joseph, Kaitlin Jones Hinchey, Morgan Walker, Jennifer Niles
Assessment Of Professional Counseling Dispositions: A Content Validity Analysis, Patrick R. Mullen, Jacob Joseph, Kaitlin Jones Hinchey, Morgan Walker, Jennifer Niles
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Counselor educators evaluate the professional counseling dispositions of trainees throughout their development within training programs. There have been few consistent articulations of professional dispositions as many programs and measures define them differently. In our study, we developed the Assessment of Professional Counseling Dispositions (APCD) and performed a content validity study of the measure. Our findings provide evidence for the content validity of the APCD. We discuss these findings, their implications, and future research using the measure.
The Class Of 2019: Academic Employment Prospects For Counselor Education Doctoral Graduates, Christopher Lawrence, Gregory Hatchett
The Class Of 2019: Academic Employment Prospects For Counselor Education Doctoral Graduates, Christopher Lawrence, Gregory Hatchett
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
The purpose of this investigation was to estimate the percentage of counselor education doctoral (CED) program graduates who attained faculty positions within two years of graduation and to compare the number of these graduates to the number of advertised faculty positions during this same timeframe. To do so, we used archival, publicly available data for graduates of CACREP-accredited CED programs during the 2018-2019 academic cycle (N = 314). Approximately two-fifths of these graduates had faculty positions. Graduation from a public university increased the odds of having any faculty post, whereas graduation from a public university and the Carnegie Classification of …
A Model Of Retention And Remediation For Online Counselor Education, Colleen M. Grunhaus, Matthew Lyons
A Model Of Retention And Remediation For Online Counselor Education, Colleen M. Grunhaus, Matthew Lyons
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Online counseling programs experience unique retention and gatekeeping challenges. Increased isolation and personal adversities are common factors associated with attrition for online students; and broad-access admission policies of online counseling programs often lead to increased gatekeeping concerns postadmission. Counseling programs develop policies and procedures related to retention, remediation, and dismissal, but extant models of remediation do not also address student retention or the unique challenges of online counselor education. We present a model, The Retention and Remediation Model for Online Counselor Education, that demonstrates a comprehensive policy for retention, remediation, and dismissal in online counseling programs through a three-prong approach …
Professional Identity Development Of Black Doctoral Students In Counselor Education: A Reflexive Model, Olivia T. Ngadjui Phd, Elizabeth A. Doughty Horn
Professional Identity Development Of Black Doctoral Students In Counselor Education: A Reflexive Model, Olivia T. Ngadjui Phd, Elizabeth A. Doughty Horn
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
This grounded theory study comprised the perspectives of how past and current Black doctoral students formalized their professional identity in counselor education. Findings included reflexivity as a central theme within the internal process of Black doctoral students navigating counselor education programs and a model of professional identity development.
Relationships Of Empathy And Color-Blind Attitudes On Counseling Students’ Critical Consciousness, Bagmi Das, Maggie M. Parker, Sarah Litt
Relationships Of Empathy And Color-Blind Attitudes On Counseling Students’ Critical Consciousness, Bagmi Das, Maggie M. Parker, Sarah Litt
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
A critical piece of counselor education is enhancing counselors’ in training (CITs) multicultural competence. Concepts included in CIT cultural development include both developing empathy (Constantine, 2001) and dismantling color-blind racial attitudes` (Neville et al., 2013). Thus, this study presents multiple regression to explore the relationships between color blindness, empathy development, and critical consciousness of 166 counseling students. Results indicate that that empathy and color-blind attitudes have associations with some aspects of critical consciousness, but not sociopolitical participation. Implications for counselor education and directions for future research are discussed.
Social Justice Identity And Program Evaluation: A Pilot Study Of Cmhc Students, Heidi L. Henry
Social Justice Identity And Program Evaluation: A Pilot Study Of Cmhc Students, Heidi L. Henry
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Program development and evaluation can be used to address historical inequities in mental health, but they are scarcely studied in counselor education. The purpose of this pilot study was to examine how taking one social-justice focused CMHC management course impacted 66 counseling students’ social justice identity and program evaluation understanding. Participating students completed a group program proposal focused on social justice and program evaluation. To assess change in their social justice attitudes, behaviors, and program evaluation understanding, they completed a demographic questionnaire, pre-test, and post-test. The results, derived from t-tests and Wilcoxon Signed-Rank tests, indicated a significant improvement from pre- …
Students’ Perceptions Of Grades And Grade Inflation In Counselor Training, Daniel A. Decino, Phillip L. Waalkes, Steven Chesnut
Students’ Perceptions Of Grades And Grade Inflation In Counselor Training, Daniel A. Decino, Phillip L. Waalkes, Steven Chesnut
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Previous scholars have suggested grade inflation has been in higher education for decades, may devalue high grade point averages, and blur important differences between qualified and unqualified job candidates. In counselor training programs, grade inflation may cause students to overestimate their abilities to handle challenging real-world situations, impede faculty evaluation practices, and promote unfavorable student learning environments. In this exploratory study, we surveyed 240 counseling students on their perceptions of their grades and their peers’ grades before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Our results suggest that students perceived their peers succeeded academically despite inappropriate and unethical behaviors, especially during the …
Mentorship In Counselor Education: A Scoping Review, Gideon Litherland, Gretchen Schulthes, Edward Ewe, Kaj Kayij-Wint, Kok-Mun Ng
Mentorship In Counselor Education: A Scoping Review, Gideon Litherland, Gretchen Schulthes, Edward Ewe, Kaj Kayij-Wint, Kok-Mun Ng
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Mentorship has been widely lauded as meaningful for trainees in their professional development. To better understand the gaps in the scholarship of mentorship in counselor education, a scoping review was conducted to examine peer-reviewed research from 2005-2020. Results found eligible articles (n = 18) met the eligibility criteria. Implications from this study include improving conceptual rigor of mentorship outcomes in counselor education research, further investigating how underrepresented identities may benefit from mentorship, and tailoring mentorship interventions for the learning context and graduate level for counselor education students.
Teaching Trauma Theory And Practice In Counselor Education: A Multiple Case Study, Charmayne R. Adams, Casey A. Barrio Minton, Jennifer Hightower
Teaching Trauma Theory And Practice In Counselor Education: A Multiple Case Study, Charmayne R. Adams, Casey A. Barrio Minton, Jennifer Hightower
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Teaching about trauma theory and practice is an integral part of counselor preparation. The purpose of this multiple case study was to understand how counselor educators (CEs) designed and facilitated significant learning experiences regarding trauma theory and practice. The researchers aimed to answer two research questions (1.) how do CEs choose which content to address in trauma courses and (2.) which teaching methods do CEs use to facilitate significant learning experiences in trauma courses? The study participants were three CEs teaching trauma courses in multiple formats (face-to-face, online, and hybrid) in CACREP programs. The results indicated that instructors faced unique …
Infusing Anarchist Pedagogy Into Counselor Education, Andrew Wood
Infusing Anarchist Pedagogy Into Counselor Education, Andrew Wood
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Anarchist pedagogy has existed for well over 100 years, but little has been written on the subject within the counseling profession and the counselor education literature specifically. Anarchist pedagogy offers a direct relationship between education and social justice praxis that many counseling programs espouse, and thus the consideration of an explicitly political pedagogy may benefit the counselor education profession. This manuscript aims to provide a brief overview of anarchist pedagogy, how it fits into the work of counselor education, and how counselor educators can utilize anarchist pedagogy. Limitations for the infusion of anarchist pedagogy into counselor education and future areas …
Exploring The Relationship Between The Supervisory Alliance And The Development Of Reflexive Self-Awareness: A Mixed Methods Approach, Alexandre Brien, Réginald Savard, Cynthia Bilodeau, Patricia Dionne
Exploring The Relationship Between The Supervisory Alliance And The Development Of Reflexive Self-Awareness: A Mixed Methods Approach, Alexandre Brien, Réginald Savard, Cynthia Bilodeau, Patricia Dionne
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
The study used embedded design to explore the relationship between alliance and perceived change in reflexive self-awareness in graduate trainees following counseling and psychotherapy programs (n = 48). Linear regression analyses were used to measure the predictive value of alliance on the development of supervisees' reflexive awareness. Qualitative reflexive thematic analysis was also conducted on critical incident reports of supervisees who perceived low vs strong alliances to gain greater in-depth understanding of the quantitative data. Results showed that the alliance does not directly predict observed changes in reflexive awareness. While alliance was found to create favorable conditions to support the …
Experiences Of School Counseling Trainees In A Primary Care Integrated Behavioral Health Care Practicum, Kaprea Johnson, Krystal Clemons, Lauren Robins, Alexandra Gantt-Howrey, Afroze Shaikh, Heather A. Jones
Experiences Of School Counseling Trainees In A Primary Care Integrated Behavioral Health Care Practicum, Kaprea Johnson, Krystal Clemons, Lauren Robins, Alexandra Gantt-Howrey, Afroze Shaikh, Heather A. Jones
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Youth integrated behavioral healthcare (IBH) is a preferred method of service delivery, and school system expertise on these teams is imperative. In this descriptive phenomenological study, we sought to understand the experiences of five school counseling practicum students (SCITs) engaged in IBH in an urban children's hospital. Phenomenological analysis resulted in five themes: (a) contributing school system knowledge, (b) expansion of professional identity through practical application, (c) collaborative interventions and techniques, (d) interprofessional supervision, and (e) program and setting challenges. Implications for counselor education and supervision, including IBH-specific training for SCITs, conclude.
Using The Five Ps: Conceptualizing Covid-19-Related Mental Health Concerns, Christine D. Gonzales-Wong, Scott Peters
Using The Five Ps: Conceptualizing Covid-19-Related Mental Health Concerns, Christine D. Gonzales-Wong, Scott Peters
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in rising mental health concerns. As individuals experience loneliness, anxiety, and depression related to the pandemic, counselors-in-training navigate their treatment of clients while also living through the pandemic and its polarization. The authors present the Five Ps, a case conceptualization model that supervisors can use to help beginning counselors consider the history and context of the presenting concerns of clients, in addition to utilizing clients’ strengths in treatment. The authors provide a case illustration using the Five Ps in a supervision setting and discuss implications for supervision and future research.
The Predictability Of Grit On Counselor Educators’ Competencies And Publications, Mary K. Depue, Jacqueline M. Swank, Jo Lauren Weaver, Ren Liu
The Predictability Of Grit On Counselor Educators’ Competencies And Publications, Mary K. Depue, Jacqueline M. Swank, Jo Lauren Weaver, Ren Liu
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Counselor educators are expected to engage in research and mentor doctoral students, highlighting the importance of competency in both areas. Grit predicts positive work outcomes, and we found no studies on grit in relation to counselor educator success measures. We wanted to understand the role of grit in counselor education productivity levels and necessary competencies. We recruited counselor educators at CACREP-accredited institutions with doctoral programs. We hypothesized that grit would predict both mentoring competencies and publication rates, mediated by research competencies. We tested a model with counselor educators (N = 110) and found that the relationship between grit, as measured …
Bilingual Counseling Students Developing Cultural And Language Competence In Mexico, Claudia G. Interiano-Shiverdecker, Derek Robertson, Sofia Santillan, Mica Stumpf
Bilingual Counseling Students Developing Cultural And Language Competence In Mexico, Claudia G. Interiano-Shiverdecker, Derek Robertson, Sofia Santillan, Mica Stumpf
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Scholars have recently called for a greater research focus on bilingual counselor education and training. This study aims to explore the impact and development of study abroad immersion experiences on Latine bilingual counseling students. This study used transcendental phenomenological research to explore the lived experiences of bilingual counselors (N = 7) during a two-week study abroad program in Oaxaca. Participants comprised master’s and doctoral level students at a CACREP-accredited program who identified as Latine, Spanish-speakers. Through individual interviews, we discovered three themes from the data: (a) personal and professional connection to the study abroad program, (b) developing cultural competence through …
The Intentional Andragogy Model: A Teaching Framework For Counselor Educators, Phillip L. Waalkes, Paul H. Smith, Daniel Hall
The Intentional Andragogy Model: A Teaching Framework For Counselor Educators, Phillip L. Waalkes, Paul H. Smith, Daniel Hall
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Counselor education programs can help support doctoral students in developing teaching philosophies. Yet, limited guidance exists about how counselor educators can help doctoral students integrate andragogies into their teaching philosophy statements. Overlooking andragogy may impede educators from deepening their philosophical beliefs and teaching with authenticity and intentionality. Therefore, we offer the Intentional Andragogy Model (IAM), a process-oriented reimagining of Halbur and Halbur’s Intentional Theory Selection model (ITSM). Counselor educators-in-training can follow this scaffolded step-by-step process to write teaching philosophy statements rooted in their life philosophies and their unique contexts. This model can help counselor educators-in-training root their teaching philosophy statements …
Anti-Racist Considerations For Teaching Cacrep Assessment And Diagnosis Courses, Haley R. Ault, Henrietta S. Gantt, Casey A. Barrio Minton
Anti-Racist Considerations For Teaching Cacrep Assessment And Diagnosis Courses, Haley R. Ault, Henrietta S. Gantt, Casey A. Barrio Minton
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Professional counselors must act as anti-racist social justice advocates throughout the counseling relationship, including assessment, diagnosis, and treatment planning. Due to internalized racism and inappropriate instruments, assessment and diagnosis are two critical areas where marginalized populations have historically experienced misdiagnosis and pathologizing impacting overall client care and wellbeing. Inappropriate instruments, inadequate training, and counselor bias have profound impacts on access to treatment and resources for individuals holding marginalized racial identities. Although the call for anti-racist counseling is clear, the profession is still unclear on how to teach these concepts to counselor trainees. Counselor educators must be intentional about incorporating anti-racist …
Practicum & Internship Coordinators’ Experiences Amid Covid-19 Emergency Remote Teaching, Alexander T. Becnel, Sarah Irvin, Theodore Remley
Practicum & Internship Coordinators’ Experiences Amid Covid-19 Emergency Remote Teaching, Alexander T. Becnel, Sarah Irvin, Theodore Remley
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Although recent literature addresses online pedagogy and online counselor education, few articles address the challenges faced by counselor educators during emergency remote teaching, an unplanned and unanticipated switch from in-person education to online education. To address this gap, we conducted a phenomenological study of the lived experiences of practicum and internship coordinators (N = 8) during the emergency remote teaching phase of the COVID-19 pandemic. Five themes emerged: (a) uncertainty, (b) adaptation to leadership, (c) changes to student experience, (d) personal support, and (e) readiness. Implications for counselor educators and supervisors are addressed.
Basic Needs Adversities Among Counselors In Training: A Cluster Analysis, Jamie E. Crockett, Nathaniel N. Ivers
Basic Needs Adversities Among Counselors In Training: A Cluster Analysis, Jamie E. Crockett, Nathaniel N. Ivers
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
During the intersection of COVID-19 with ongoing identity-based injustices in the US, Counselors-in-Training (CITs) experience unprecedented challenges including new or exacerbated basic needs insecurity. In this descriptive study, the authors examined Basic Needs Adversities (BNA) in a national sample of CITs (n = 233) during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. The authors used cluster analysis to investigate CITs reported BNAs and identified four subgroups of participants based on similarities and dissimilarities in the number and type of BNAs endorsed. The authors discuss implications for training and supervision with a focus on social justice in counselor education.
Practicum Student Counselor Identity Development Through The Covid-19 Pandemic, Joy Teles Oliveira, Sarah A. Silveus
Practicum Student Counselor Identity Development Through The Covid-19 Pandemic, Joy Teles Oliveira, Sarah A. Silveus
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
The process of developing a counselor identity is a complex task, and it starts as early as when a student first enrolls in a Master’s program. Within the events surrounding COVID-19, limited information is known about how that experience might have affected counseling students' professional identity development. Through Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis, we explored the counselor identity development process of Master’s-level counseling practicum students (n=6) during the events of the COVID-19 pandemic. Emerging themes indicated that students' experiences throughout the pandemic had a unique influence on their conceptualization of the practicum experience. Findings illustrated that these events slowed some aspects of …
The Impact Of Supervisor Servant Leadership On Counselor Supervisee Burnout And Secondary Traumatic Stress, Colleen M. Grunhaus, Thomas J. Ward, Victor E. Tuazon, Kristal James
The Impact Of Supervisor Servant Leadership On Counselor Supervisee Burnout And Secondary Traumatic Stress, Colleen M. Grunhaus, Thomas J. Ward, Victor E. Tuazon, Kristal James
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
This study investigates the prediction of supervisee burnout and secondary traumatic stress by perceived supervisor servant leadership. Authors hypothesized that the servant leadership of supervisors would predict diminished burnout and secondary traumatic stress of supervisees. A sample of 241 counseling supervisees participated in the cross-sectional study and completed instruments measuring burnout, secondary traumatic stress, and perceived servant leadership of their direct supervisors. Data were analyzed with two simple linear regressions, and a one-way MANOVA was performed to determine if supervisee burnout, supervisee secondary traumatic stress, and perceived servant leadership of supervisors differed significantly according to supervisor type (i.e., clinical, administrative, …
School Counselor Suicide Response: A Final Rejoinder, Carrie A. Wachter Morris, Laura Gallo
School Counselor Suicide Response: A Final Rejoinder, Carrie A. Wachter Morris, Laura Gallo
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
In this article, we provide a summary of responses to Gallo and Wachter Morris (2022). We provide additional considerations based upon contributing authors’ perspectives and concluding thoughts on how to move forward on issues specific to school counselors’ roles in suicide prevention, assessment, and intervention in K-12 schools, as well as recommendations for pieces to consider for school counselor educators and practicing professional school counselors.
A Wrap Around Approach To Suicide Prevention In Schools: It’S Not Just School Counselors…., Tahani Dari, Jan Gay
A Wrap Around Approach To Suicide Prevention In Schools: It’S Not Just School Counselors…., Tahani Dari, Jan Gay
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
The prevalence of suicide among children and adolescents is alarming. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020), suicide is the second leading cause of death among youth ages 10-19. Schools are one of the main providers of mental health support for students (O’Neill et al., 2021). Similar to school-based mental health counselors, psychologists, and social workers, school counselors are trained and prepared in suicide risk assessment and intervention. Mental health issues, however, require collaborative approaches that address the complex factors impacting youth, such as the impact of the dual pandemics of COVID-19 and racial injustice. The purpose …
Validating School Counselor Professional Identity: Response To “Suicide Intervention In Schools”, Donna Gibson
Validating School Counselor Professional Identity: Response To “Suicide Intervention In Schools”, Donna Gibson
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
In response to the manuscript of “Suicide intervention in schools: If not school counselors, then who?” the roles and responsibilities of school counselors and educators are highlighted as to effective preparation for suicide intervention. Although preparation in training is needed due to the increasing rates of suicide in K-12 student populations, the professional identity development of school counselors is examined as it applies to the growing mental health needs in schools. Implications for counselor educators and school counselors in their responsibility for training and prioritizing needs to address are provided.
School Counselors’ Vital Role In Suicide Intervention: A Response To Gallo And Wachter Morris, Carolyn Stone
School Counselors’ Vital Role In Suicide Intervention: A Response To Gallo And Wachter Morris, Carolyn Stone
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
School counselors have a critically important role in suicide intervention, one that provides the greatest chance to ensure student safety. In this response article, I clarify the intent of the American School Counselor Association magazine column, "Suicide Assessments: The Medical Profession Affirms School Counselors’ Truth," to underscore the critical role that school counselors play in suicide intervention. School districts are requiring school counselors to quantify suicide and make a judgment based on the student’s self-report. The intended message of the column was not to diminish school counselor training in suicide assessment and intervention, instead it was to provide school counselors …
Suicide Intervention In Schools: If Not School Counselors, Then Who?, Laura Gallo, Carrie A. Wachter Morris
Suicide Intervention In Schools: If Not School Counselors, Then Who?, Laura Gallo, Carrie A. Wachter Morris
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Youth suicide rates continue to rise each year. School counselors play an essential role in preventing suicide within K-12 schools. After the publication of the article, “Suicide Assessments: The Medical Profession Affirms School Counselors’ Truth,” in 2021 by Dr. Carolyn Stone, some confusion surfaced regarding professional school counselors’ responsibilities and liabilities around issues of suicide. To provide clarification, the role and training of school counselors are highlighted to provide evidence for their place in suicide risk assessment. Ethical implications and previous legal cases are provided to inform the profession. Training/supervision recommendations for counselor educators are also discussed.
Cross-Cultural Distance Dialogues In Counselor Education: Collaborative Pedagogy, Sarah N. Baquet, Jehan Hill
Cross-Cultural Distance Dialogues In Counselor Education: Collaborative Pedagogy, Sarah N. Baquet, Jehan Hill
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Researchers examined the experience of participating in Cross Cultural Distance Dialogues (CCDD) in facilitating Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competency (MSJCC) through an interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA). With the high need to develop curriculum in counselor education programs that intentionally incorporate cultural competencies (Ratts et al., 2016), this study was conducted to explore an innovative pedological technique that further fosters MSJCC within master's level coursework. Four counseling students engaged in a structured dialogue across university campuses during their multicultural course were selected for participation in this study. After completing two rounds of interviews and a member check, the following themes …
Veterans In Counseling Programs: Military Service And The Counselor Training Process, Crystal D. Hahn, Carl R. Price, Claudia G. Interiano-Shiverdecker
Veterans In Counseling Programs: Military Service And The Counselor Training Process, Crystal D. Hahn, Carl R. Price, Claudia G. Interiano-Shiverdecker
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
The authors conducted a transcendental phenomenological study to acquire a deeper understanding of graduate student veterans’ experiences in counselor training programs and explore how military background influences counselor development. Results are based on semi-structured interviews with eight graduate student veterans enrolled in counseling programs across the United States. Four themes resulted which impacted counselor training processes (a) military behaviors, values, and identity (b) military counseling cultural contrasts, (c) integrating military service into counselor training, and (d) veteran-friendly suggestions for counseling programs. This study presented a range of experiences graduate student veterans have in counselor training programs, concluding that this student …
Empathy-In-Teaching As A Multidimensional Disposition In Counselor Education, Eric R. Baltrinic, Melissa Luke
Empathy-In-Teaching As A Multidimensional Disposition In Counselor Education, Eric R. Baltrinic, Melissa Luke
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
Empathy is a disposition noted among established teaching competencies in counselor education. However, current descriptions of empathy are unidimensional and lack an operational definition for evaluating teaching dispositions. The term empathy-in-teaching is a multidimensional concept suitable for expanding our current understanding of empathy within the current teaching dispositions in counselor education. Implications for application of the concept of empathy-in-teaching within the current teaching dispositions and future research suggestions are offered.
Students’ Experience Of Family Counseling Role-Play With Developmental Considerations, Emily Horton, Crystal Hughes, Priscilla R. Prasath, Jessica Lloyd-Hazlett
Students’ Experience Of Family Counseling Role-Play With Developmental Considerations, Emily Horton, Crystal Hughes, Priscilla R. Prasath, Jessica Lloyd-Hazlett
Teaching and Supervision in Counseling
A need exists to explore student experiences with pedagogical approaches, particularly those commonly used in counselor education such as role-play. Nine counselors-in-training (CITs) who participated in a semester-long family counseling role-play shared their experiences with the pedagogical approach. Through semi-structured interview protocol, we explored CITs’ lived experience and meaning-making with the learning strategy. Existing literature denotes that cognitive complexity influences how CITs make sense of their experiences. As such, cognitive complexity scores, rooted in Perry’s intellectual development model, are provided for each participant. Data were analyzed using transcendental phenomenology, which resulted in three superordinate themes: impact of class structure, increased …