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Full-Text Articles in Family, Life Course, and Society

Executive Functioning And Mental Health In Emerging Adults: Type 1 Diabetes Status As A Moderator, Hannah Margot Mcdaniel Aug 2025

Executive Functioning And Mental Health In Emerging Adults: Type 1 Diabetes Status As A Moderator, Hannah Margot Mcdaniel

Theses and Dissertations

Emerging adults (ages 18-26) with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) are especially vulnerable to diabetes management challenges when taking on increased disease responsibility during this critical period of development. They may experience higher cognitive and psychological demands compared to peers. The study examined whether having T1DM moderated the association between executive functioning (EF) and mental health symptoms (i.e., depression, anxiety, stress, and disordered eating) in emerging adults. Exploratory analyses investigated the associations between EF, disease management, and mental health symptoms. Participants were 35 emerging adults with T1DM and 35 healthy controls. Participants completed questionnaire measures of mental health and performance-based …


The Association Of Anxiety, Familial Dysfunction, And Child Emotion Regulation Between Family Therapy Sessions 1 And 4, Kaelie Noel Lemmon Aug 2025

The Association Of Anxiety, Familial Dysfunction, And Child Emotion Regulation Between Family Therapy Sessions 1 And 4, Kaelie Noel Lemmon

Theses and Dissertations

Few studies address how relational factors may be interdependent and impact child-focused problems that could be collectively addressed in systemic family therapy. The current study utilized a cross-lagged panel model to explore the associations of parental anxiety, familial dysfunction, and child emotion regulation between four family therapy sessions. The study included 224 parents who sought family therapy and participated in the Marriage and Family Therapy Practice Research Network (MFT-PRN). Data were collected at two time points across four family therapy sessions. The findings indicated that higher levels of parental anxiety at intake were associated with higher familial dysfunction at session …


Is Social Media Use A Reason For Socially Withdrawn Individuals' Mental Health Difficulties?, Angela Grundvig Aug 2025

Is Social Media Use A Reason For Socially Withdrawn Individuals' Mental Health Difficulties?, Angela Grundvig

Theses and Dissertations

Studies have found a link between subtypes of social withdrawal and internalizing problems throughout most of the lifespan. However, the work conducted in adolescence is much more limited including a lack of work examining factors that might mediate the association between forms of social withdrawal and internalizing problems. Social comparison may be one way in which social withdrawal predicts internalizing problems. There has been research showing that social media usage is associated with internalizing problems. The purpose of this study was to assess (a) the associations between three subtypes of social withdrawal (shyness, avoidance, and unsociability), respectively, and indices of …


Attachment Or Aversion: A Study Of The Effects Of Parental Technoference On Child Emotion Knowledge, Brooklyn Coleman Aug 2025

Attachment Or Aversion: A Study Of The Effects Of Parental Technoference On Child Emotion Knowledge, Brooklyn Coleman

Theses and Dissertations

Young children's understanding of emotions is heavily socialized by their parents. Through interactions with parents, children learn what emotions look like, when they are expressed, and how they are labeled (Laible, 2004a). Interruptions to interactions between children and parents have the potential to influence the development of children's emotion knowledge. According to the DREAMER framework, how one family member uses media and technology can influence other family members (Barr et al., 2024). Technoference (i.e., digital distraction while with others) is one example of how media might interrupt family life and influence child development as a whole. The current study examined …


Routine Outcome Monitoring With The Youth Outcome Questionnaire-30.2 Self-Report: Creating And Testing An Empirical Alert System And Exploring Informant Discrepancy Patterns, Tate M. Paxton Aug 2025

Routine Outcome Monitoring With The Youth Outcome Questionnaire-30.2 Self-Report: Creating And Testing An Empirical Alert System And Exploring Informant Discrepancy Patterns, Tate M. Paxton

Theses and Dissertations

Objective: Youth self-report data using the YOQ-30 has not been specifically examined for use in routine outcome monitoring systems. This study used the YOQ-30 self-report in three endeavors: (1) modeling change trajectories in a large, naturalistic outpatient sample, (2) creating and testing an empirical alert system for deterioration, and (3) exploring the role of informant agreement, both descriptively and in a change trajectory model. Method: The sample consisted of 21,098 adolescents ages 12-17 receiving outpatient mental health care who used the OQ Measures system. Multilevel individual change trajectory models estimated symptom change over time. An alert system was developed on …


Refugee Families: Parental Traumatic Stress And Child Outcomes A Scoping Review, Britta Sedig Aug 2025

Refugee Families: Parental Traumatic Stress And Child Outcomes A Scoping Review, Britta Sedig

Theses and Dissertations

This scoping review synthesizes recent literature (2019-2024) to explore mechanisms linking parental trauma to child mental health outcomes within refugee families. Guided by a systemic and relational focus, 20 studies were identified and analyzed, revealing five central themes: intergenerational transmission of trauma, parenting practices as mediators, parent-child dyadic attachment, family functioning and conflict, and post-migration and acculturative stress. Findings highlighted associations between parental trauma-related symptoms and refugee children's emotional and behavioral concerns. Parenting practices were frequently linked to child wellbeing, with some studies identifying risk factors like harsh discipline and emotional unavailability, and others noting protective roles of intentional caregiving. …


Commitment And Betrayal In Intimate Relationships: A Grounded Theory Analysis, Megan Van Alfen Brown Jul 2025

Commitment And Betrayal In Intimate Relationships: A Grounded Theory Analysis, Megan Van Alfen Brown

Theses and Dissertations

Commitment and betrayal are key aspects of a relationship that have impact on the quality or health of the relationship. The purpose of this paper was to use qualitative grounded theory methods to explore how commitment and betrayal are experienced in intimate relationships and to explore the outcomes of both. The data were taken from a larger project on healthy and unhealthy relationships where participants were recruited through convenience and theoretical sampling. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and constructivist grounded theory methods were used to code, generate, and refine prominent categories in the data. Findings revealed that commitment is experienced through …


Illness Severity And Marital Communication In Young Couples: The Moderating Role Of Marital Satisfaction, Jaime Lea Dick Jul 2025

Illness Severity And Marital Communication In Young Couples: The Moderating Role Of Marital Satisfaction, Jaime Lea Dick

Theses and Dissertations

The emergence of a chronic physical illness is unexpected in emerging adulthood and is accompanied by stress. Additionally, married partners of individuals with physical illnesses are likewise affected by the new diagnosis. Marriage outcomes of couples facing chronic illnesses together vary, being sometimes positive and sometimes negative. The current study examined the relationship between the emergence of chronic physical illness in emerging adults and marital communication of both the patient and partner, with marital satisfaction as a moderator. Gender differences are also addressed. From the Couple Relationships and Transition Experiences (CREATE) study, a nationally representative dataset of newly married emerging …


Comunidades Y Vacunas: Findings On Vaccine Hesitancy In Latine Families With Autistic Children, Danica Leticia Limon-Mialkowski Jul 2025

Comunidades Y Vacunas: Findings On Vaccine Hesitancy In Latine Families With Autistic Children, Danica Leticia Limon-Mialkowski

Theses and Dissertations

Parent vaccine hesitancy (VH) and subsequent vaccine refusal for children has escalated in the U.S. over the past several years and is more common among parents with an autistic child compared to the general population (Zerbo et al., 2018). This is an important issue to address given that VH has led to a resurgence of vaccine-preventable diseases (DeStefano & Shimabukuro, 2019; Geoghegan, et al., 2020). Research shows that VH is affected by parent cultural background (Fombonne et al., 2020) and that minoritized groups are more likely to experience VH (48.1% in parents of color [POC] groups versus 22.9% in White …


Sacred Bonds: The Association Between Religious Giving And Relationship Quality, Sofia C. Suxo-Sanchez Jul 2025

Sacred Bonds: The Association Between Religious Giving And Relationship Quality, Sofia C. Suxo-Sanchez

Theses and Dissertations

Grounded in interdependence theory, we sought to understand how religious giving is associated with relationship quality by drawing on two distinct datasets, one from emerging adult couples and another from established couples. Using structural equation modeling, we tested the direct association between religious giving and relationship quality, and whether it was mediated by materialism. Our quantitative findings contrasted previous research; we did not find materialism to mediate the association and found a significant, negative association between religious giving and relationship quality. Through a team-based coding approach, we explored how and why established couples believed religious giving impacted their relationship quality. …


Who's At Home?: Individual-And Family-Level Sociodemographic Characteristics Associated With Stay-At-Home Motherhood, Deegan Minchey Jun 2025

Who's At Home?: Individual-And Family-Level Sociodemographic Characteristics Associated With Stay-At-Home Motherhood, Deegan Minchey

Theses and Dissertations

In this study, I assess the relationship between various types of demographic variables, including individual, partner, and family-level information, and the likelihood of mothers staying at home. Using nationally representative data from the 2019,2021, and 2023 waves of the Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASEC) to the Current Population Survey to account for differences across the COVID-19 pandemic, this analysis examines the likelihood of becoming a stay-at-home mother (SAHM) across three separate regression models. From the variables analyzed, I find that various individual, family, and partner demographic characteristics are significantly associated with the likelihood of becoming a SAHM. These results …


An Implementation Study Of A Brief, Online Sexual Mindfulness Intervention At The Individual Partner Level: The Impact Of Prompting Practice On Implementation, Alexyss Lange Jun 2025

An Implementation Study Of A Brief, Online Sexual Mindfulness Intervention At The Individual Partner Level: The Impact Of Prompting Practice On Implementation, Alexyss Lange

Theses and Dissertations

Prior research suggests frequent, scheduled, non-interactive text support enhances psychological outcomes and increases adherence to psychological interventions (Agyapong et al., 2020; Shalaby et al., 2022; Shim et al., 2017). Using a hybrid III implementation model, we recruited individuals in romantic relationships to test whether weekly reminders improved engagement with a sexual mindfulness intervention. We found no evidence that additional support increased intervention implementation. Although we aimed to assess acceptability, adoption, appropriateness, and feasibility as separate implementation outcomes, factor analysis indicated these variables cluster into two broader constructs: Readiness and motivation and discomfort and uncertainty. These factors did not differ between …


Unraveling The Relationship Between Sexual Shame And Father-Child Sex Communication, Hannah Mireya Brundage Jun 2025

Unraveling The Relationship Between Sexual Shame And Father-Child Sex Communication, Hannah Mireya Brundage

Theses and Dissertations

This study sought to understand the relationship between father’s sexual shame and children’s sexual shame. Parents play a role in shaping their children’s behaviors and perceptions in regard to sexuality. Most of this research analyzed data from the viewpoint of the mother, missing the potentially unique perspective and influence of fathers. Using longitudinal survey data from 361 fathers-adolescent dyads, I proposed to study the relations between father sexual shame and child sexual shame, and the possible mediating role of father-child sex communication. I predicted that quality of sex communication, including controlling and open communication, would mediate father sexual shame and …


Growing Pains: Relations Between Racial Discrimination And Body Esteem With Ethnic-Racial Identity By Pubertal Timing For Female Adolescents Of Color, Emily J. Takamasa Jun 2025

Growing Pains: Relations Between Racial Discrimination And Body Esteem With Ethnic-Racial Identity By Pubertal Timing For Female Adolescents Of Color, Emily J. Takamasa

Theses and Dissertations

Puberty is a near-universal experience among adolescents, and yet rarely have researchers considered the racialized contexts and salience it has, for girls of color. Using the phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST), this study examines the relation between pubertal timing, body esteem, racial discrimination and ethnic racial identity (ERI) components (affirmation, exploration, resolution) among adolescent girls of color (n = 218, Mage = 15.7, U.S. sample). Results showed that higher body esteem predicted greater ERI exploration and resolution, particularly for girls with average or late pubertal timing. Additionally, racial discrimination was linked to higher ERI exploration and resolution only …


Why Yelling Feels Like The Only Option (And What To Try Instead), Vanessa Brouse Jun 2025

Why Yelling Feels Like The Only Option (And What To Try Instead), Vanessa Brouse

Student Works

Why Yelling Feels Like the Only Option (and What to Try Instead) explores how emotional dysregulation in parents can lead to reactive patterns like yelling, shutting down, or withdrawing, and how these responses impact children’s emotional development. Drawing on principles of emotional regulation, the piece offers practical, compassionate strategies for parents to break intergenerational cycles and build stronger, more connected relationships with their children. This article is especially relevant for parents, caregivers, and educators interested in trauma-informed parenting, emotional resilience, and behavior challenges.


Couples And Pornography: A Dyadic Latent Profile Analysis Of Romantic Partners And Pornography Use, Michelle E. Haddock Edwards Jun 2025

Couples And Pornography: A Dyadic Latent Profile Analysis Of Romantic Partners And Pornography Use, Michelle E. Haddock Edwards

Theses and Dissertations

Research on the outcomes of pornography use for romantic couples has been extensive yet inconclusive. Studies have examined pornography use in a wide variety of contexts, leading to a wide variety of outcomes and well-being. The current study uses latent profile analysis to account for many contextual factors at once, dyadic data to examine the perspective of both partners simultaneously, and a range of individual and relational well-being outcomes to understand how different relational pornography use patterns lead to well-being. Results provided evidence for six unique profiles of couples based on pornography use patterns (personal use frequency, perceived partner use …


The Development Of The Disclosed Reasons Of Partners' Premature Discontinuation In Couple Therapy Questionnaire (Dropped-Ct), Luca Codeca' Jun 2025

The Development Of The Disclosed Reasons Of Partners' Premature Discontinuation In Couple Therapy Questionnaire (Dropped-Ct), Luca Codeca'

Theses and Dissertations

Premature discontinuation from couple therapy presents a substantial challenge for clients, therapists, and society. Inconsistent data on the frequency and reasons for premature discontinuation may be attributed to a lack of methodological rigor in assessing the phenomenon. This study addresses this gap by developing the Disclosed Reasons Of PrEmature Discontinuation in Couple Therapy Questionnaire (DROPPED-CT), a comprehensive instrument designed to assess the reasons why couples prematurely discontinue therapy. Utilizing a mixed-method approach, the DROPPED-CT was developed through the integration of qualitative and quantitative data. The questionnaire demonstrates strong potential for enhancing the consistency of construct operationalization and improving the comparability …


Latent Profiles Of Couples' Marital Power And Gender Ideologies: Associations With Physical Intimate Partner Violence, Rylie Speirs Jun 2025

Latent Profiles Of Couples' Marital Power And Gender Ideologies: Associations With Physical Intimate Partner Violence, Rylie Speirs

Theses and Dissertations

This study aims to identify couple typologies regarding gender ideologies and marital power, and investigate how couple typologies relate to sociodemographic characteristics as well as rates of physical intimate partner violence (IPV). Several theoretical approaches connect marital power and gender ideologies to IPV but emphasize different couple typologies. For example, family violence perspectives suggest gender ideology mismatch is a stressor that increases the likelihood of either spouse reporting low power or engaging in physical IPV. Feminist theories add that men may use IPV to maintain patriarchal power dynamics when women deviate from traditional gender norms, emphasizing the risk of IPV …


The Influence Of Father Involvement On Early Childhood Outcome In China, Shuiyan Guo Jun 2025

The Influence Of Father Involvement On Early Childhood Outcome In China, Shuiyan Guo

Theses and Dissertations

Using a sample from China, this study examined the influence of father involvement on child outcome in early childhood in areas of internalizing problems, externalizing problems and prosocial behaviors. The participants were drawn from the larger PACIFIC project, a cross-cultural study of family processes in Asia. 479 families with a preschool or kindergarten child living in Beijing and Dalian, China were included in this study. Using multiple regression analysis, result indicated that father involvement was not significantly associated with child’s internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and prosocial behaviors. Moderation analysis was also conducted and found that the effect of father involvement …


Therapist Experience As A Moderator Of Therapeutic Alliance Across The Course Of Couple Therapy, Julia K. Christensen Jun 2025

Therapist Experience As A Moderator Of Therapeutic Alliance Across The Course Of Couple Therapy, Julia K. Christensen

Theses and Dissertations

Therapeutic alliance is a key predictor of successful couple therapy outcomes. Little research has explored how therapist experience may predict its development. This study was designed to examine whether initial therapeutic alliance scores differ between couple clients of training clinics versus couple clients of community clinics, and whether the rate of change in alliance across sessions varies between these groups. Additionally, I controlled for initial relationship distress. Using dyadic therapy process data for at least one partner of 1,330 couples, a multilevel growth curve model with therapist experience as a moderator was fit to determine the difference in initial therapeutic …


Unseen Burdens: Exploring Gender Disparities In Infertility Experience And Depressive Symptoms, Khiara Cardoza Brown Jun 2025

Unseen Burdens: Exploring Gender Disparities In Infertility Experience And Depressive Symptoms, Khiara Cardoza Brown

Theses and Dissertations

This study examines how experiences with infertility relate to mental health outcomes among newly married U.S. couples, emphasizing gender differences and the potential moderating role of gender attitudes. Using data from 3,137 individuals in a nationally representative sample, three Actor-Partner Interdependence Models were estimated: first assessing actor and partner effects of infertility on depressive symptoms and subsequently incorporating gender attitudes as moderators. Results indicated a significant actor effect for wives, where infertility was associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms, and this association was significantly stronger for wives than for husbands. No significant effects were found for husbands' infertility and …


Structural Covariance And Episodic Memory: Sex Differences In Schizophrenia, Delaina Brooke Cimmino May 2025

Structural Covariance And Episodic Memory: Sex Differences In Schizophrenia, Delaina Brooke Cimmino

Theses and Dissertations

Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a chronic brain disease characterized by patterns of positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms that interfere with daily functioning and persist throughout the lifespan. Clinical and cognitive symptoms differ between males and females with the disease, suggesting neurobiological abnormalities that vary on the basis of biological sex. The present study used high-dimensional brain mapping and network analysis procedures of cortical and limbic regions known to be involved in memory formation to investigate sex differences in brain correlates of episodic memory among patients with schizophrenia. This study analyzed multi-site archival data from 363 male (M) and 108 female (F) …


Insights Into Cortical Organization And Executive Dysfunction In Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury, Madeleine Reading Apr 2025

Insights Into Cortical Organization And Executive Dysfunction In Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury, Madeleine Reading

Theses and Dissertations

Cortical gyrification is essential for cognitive development, yet its relationship with executive functioning (EF) in pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains unclear. This study examined whether children with TBI exhibit atypical cortical folding in EF-related regions and whether these differences relate to EF performance. Using FreeSurfer 7.1.1, we analyzed local gyrification index (LGI) in 206 participants (ages 5-18) from 14 sites within the ENIGMA Pediatric msTBI Working Group. Vertex-wise regression revealed that longer time since injury (TSI) was associated with increased gyrification in the right fusiform gyrus and multiple left-hemisphere regions, suggesting region-specific neuroplasticity. Contrary to expectations, higher GCS scores …


Fremont Human Remains In Sevier County, Alexis Maughan Apr 2025

Fremont Human Remains In Sevier County, Alexis Maughan

Theses and Dissertations

This study examines Fremont mortuary practices in Sevier County, Utah, through a systematic analysis of 50 individuals, recovered mainly from Late period sites. While Fremont burials are typically described as highly variable, the Sevier County sample reveals a striking pattern: approximately half of the individuals exhibit evidence of processing and were left scattered on structure floors rather than being intentionally buried. This pattern stands in contrast to the widely accepted description of Fremont burials as consisting mainly of individuals buried separately in expedient pits with minimal grave goods. The analysis draws on previously published reports, compiling the available data on …


The Effects Of Goal Setting On Sports Performance Of Competitive Athletes: A Meta-Analytic Review, Kelsi L. Crotts Apr 2025

The Effects Of Goal Setting On Sports Performance Of Competitive Athletes: A Meta-Analytic Review, Kelsi L. Crotts

Theses and Dissertations

Goal setting is widely used by athletes as a strategy to enhance sports performance. Despite its theoretical foundation in Goal Setting Theory (GST), empirical research has yielded mixed findings regarding its effectiveness in competitive athletic settings. Prior meta-analyses have included studies across various skill levels and motor tasks unrelated to sport, limiting their applicability to experienced athletes. The current meta-analytical review aimed to (1) evaluate the impact of goal setting on sports performance among competitive athletes, (2) examine the influence of goal characteristics such as difficulty, specificity, proximity, type, source, and feedback, and (3) identify methodological limitations in existing research …


Exploring The Associations Between Young Adults' Autistic Traits And Parental Differential Treatment, Madelyn Winder Bennett Apr 2025

Exploring The Associations Between Young Adults' Autistic Traits And Parental Differential Treatment, Madelyn Winder Bennett

Theses and Dissertations

The current study sought to identify autistic traits that may elicit parental differential treatment (PDT). Understanding these links are important because numerous studies have shown PDT to have negative implications for healthy development. Participants (recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk) completed a survey assessing their experiences of parental differential treatment and their own autistic traits using the Autism Quotient (AQ) measure (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001). Participants were young adults ages 18-29 (M age = 25.4; 57% Female, 43% Male; 73% White, n = 739) who resided in the U.S. and had at least one living sibling. Using regression analysis, we examined …


Testing The Feasibility, Acceptability, And Preliminary Impact Of A Brief Behavioral Sleep Intervention To Improve School-Aged Childhood Sleep Behaviors, Isabella Delores Wright Apr 2025

Testing The Feasibility, Acceptability, And Preliminary Impact Of A Brief Behavioral Sleep Intervention To Improve School-Aged Childhood Sleep Behaviors, Isabella Delores Wright

Theses and Dissertations

Objectives: Parent knowledge of what healthy sleep looks like in their children has scarcely been evaluated, and little is known as to whether improving child sleep through a brief behavioral intervention that emphasizes mastery, personalization, motivation, and modeling will enhance sleep outcomes in children. As a result, we designed this study with the following aims in mind: 1) determine existing parental knowledge of healthy child sleep practices of parents; 2) test the impact of a personalized, brief parental sleep intervention aimed at increasing parental self-efficacy and parent behaviors; and 3) determine preliminary feasibility, acceptability, and impact of this personalized intervention …


I Do, And I Will: Effectual Religiosity May Strengthen The Triad Chord Of Commitment To Promote Marital Flourishing For Women Of Faith, Tamara M. Chamberlain Apr 2025

I Do, And I Will: Effectual Religiosity May Strengthen The Triad Chord Of Commitment To Promote Marital Flourishing For Women Of Faith, Tamara M. Chamberlain

Theses and Dissertations

Although religiosity often associates with marital satisfaction in sociological studies, very few studies have examined religiosity strengthening marital commitment for women of faith. This study used an exemplary sample to explore how religious, heterosexual married women view religion strengthening their marital commitment. Interviews from 196 highly religious couples provided insight into the following themes and subthemes (1) personal commitment, (a) decision to marry, (b) religious beliefs and practices, and (c) requires effort and sacrifice; (2) moral commitment, (a) sexual relations before marriage, (b) promises made before God, friends, and family, and (c) fidelity and feelings about divorce; and (3) structural …


Studying Cultural Change With Transhistorical Semantic Directions, Travis Daichi Ashby Apr 2025

Studying Cultural Change With Transhistorical Semantic Directions, Travis Daichi Ashby

Theses and Dissertations

This study advances the use of diachronic word embeddings in cultural sociology, contributing both methodologically and substantively. Methodologically, it synthesizes best practices for constructing semantic directions and addresses challenges arising from diachronic embeddings, including missing data and semantic drift. Substantively, it examines historical changes in schemas and conceptual metaphors related to "processing." By analyzing the changing associations between processing-related words (e.g., "raw" and "refined") and evaluative categories like authenticity, valence, and aesthetics, the study examines whether word-level changes amongst schematically-related words indicate deeper cultural shifts at the schematic level. Findings indicate a growing association between processed states and inauthenticity, a …


Partial Replication Of The Severe Outcome Questionnaire (S-Oq): Determining Benchmarks Using Ecologically Valid Data, Joshua J. Allen Apr 2025

Partial Replication Of The Severe Outcome Questionnaire (S-Oq): Determining Benchmarks Using Ecologically Valid Data, Joshua J. Allen

Theses and Dissertations

Background: The Severe Outcome Questionnaire (S-OQ) is a self-report tool whose most recent manual was published in 2008. It measures the treatment progress of the seriously mentally ill (SMI). Objective: 1). Partially replicate the outpatient and inpatient admission, change, and internal consistency data. 2). Provide a manual extension including admission and change data for new settings of care and include treatment modality benchmarks. Method: OQ Measures provided an archival data set drawn from six different community mental health organizations from around the United States covering 101 different clinics (N = 25,511; Male = 11,524, Female = 13,987). We constructed normative …