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Articles 31 - 60 of 72
Full-Text Articles in Urban Studies
From Shared Micro-Mobility To Shared Responsibility: Using Crowdsourcing To Understand Dockless Vehicle Violations In Austin, Texas, Shunhua Bai, Junfeng Jiao
From Shared Micro-Mobility To Shared Responsibility: Using Crowdsourcing To Understand Dockless Vehicle Violations In Austin, Texas, Shunhua Bai, Junfeng Jiao
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
In recent years, many progressive U.S. cities have witnessed the rapid popularization of dockless small vehicles as a car-free travel alternative to meet the short distance travel demand. The research gap exists in revealing the social outcome of the massive influx of shared small vehicles on public space. To that end, this study analyzed 4,100 parking violation reports in Austin, Texas, crowdsourced from the Austin 311 non-emergency service request system. The results showed that sidewalk and other public space intrusions were the two most frequently reported violations. Additionally, it found that improperly parked vehicles in parks required the longest time …
Analysing Impacts Of Urban Morphological Variables And Density On Outdoor Microclimate For Tropical Cities: A Review And A Framework Proposal For Future Research Directions, Shreya Banerjee, Ngai Yan Ching, Sin Kang Yik, Yuliya Dzyuban, Peter Jay Crank, Xin Yi Pek, Winston T. L. Chow
Analysing Impacts Of Urban Morphological Variables And Density On Outdoor Microclimate For Tropical Cities: A Review And A Framework Proposal For Future Research Directions, Shreya Banerjee, Ngai Yan Ching, Sin Kang Yik, Yuliya Dzyuban, Peter Jay Crank, Xin Yi Pek, Winston T. L. Chow
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Modifying urban morphology, defined as mass, density, and orientation of building stock in cities, are well-known heat mitigation strategies addressing urban heat islands (UHI) at various scales and consequent thermal discomfort. However, varying morphological aspects may have divergent effects on Outdoor Thermal Comfort (OTC) in cities. Unlike UHI, which is derived from urban-rural temperature differences, OTC can be quantified by thermal comfort indices considering the objective assessment of microclimatic variables including air temperature (Ta), relative humidity (RH), mean radiant temperature (TMRT), and wind speed (Va), as well as a subjective assessment of individual perception. In Singapore and other tropical cities, …
Are There Transit Deserts In Europe? A Study Focusing On Four European Cases Through Publicly Available Data, Yefu Chen, Junfeng Jiao
Are There Transit Deserts In Europe? A Study Focusing On Four European Cases Through Publicly Available Data, Yefu Chen, Junfeng Jiao
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Public transit has been proven as an affordable travel method, while the inequitable distribution is a rising concern among practitioners and researchers. A transit desert, based on the demand and supply concept in measuring the mismatch in allocating the level of public transit service, has proved its ability to be applied in cases across countries. According to this concept, this study investigated transit deserts in four cases in Europe. Results indicate that the public transit system in Grand Paris and Madrid are superior due to a smaller population living in areas where public transit cannot meet the demand. Moreover, we …
Individual Perceptions Of Climate Anomalies And Collective Action: Evidence From An Artefactual Field Experiment In Malaysian Borneo, Terry Van Gevelt, T. Zamanb, K.N. Chanc, M.M. Bennettd
Individual Perceptions Of Climate Anomalies And Collective Action: Evidence From An Artefactual Field Experiment In Malaysian Borneo, Terry Van Gevelt, T. Zamanb, K.N. Chanc, M.M. Bennettd
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
We explore the effect of individual perceptions of climate anomalies on collective action within a context of environmental complexity and uncertainty. To do so, we construct two competing propositions that are theoretically robust but with very different real-world implications. Our first proposition suggests that collective action to adapt to climate change is likely to be more effective when perceptions of climate anomalies converge within a community. Our second proposition suggests the opposite: that convergence is likely to hinder adaptation behaviour. We use a community co-designed measure of perceptions and an artefactual field experiment to test our propositions and explore the …
Integrated Assessment Of Urban Overheating Impacts On Human Life, N. Nazarian, E. S. Krayenhoff, B. Bechtel, D. M. Hondula, R. Paolini, J. Vanos, T. Cheung, Winston T. L. Chow, Et Al
Integrated Assessment Of Urban Overheating Impacts On Human Life, N. Nazarian, E. S. Krayenhoff, B. Bechtel, D. M. Hondula, R. Paolini, J. Vanos, T. Cheung, Winston T. L. Chow, Et Al
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Urban overheating, driven by global climate change and urban development, is a major contemporary challenge that substantially impacts urban livability and sustainability. Overheating represents a multifaceted threat to the well-being, performance, and health of individuals as well as the energy efficiency and economy of cities, and it is influenced by complex interactions between building, city, and global scale climates. In recent decades, extensive discipline-specific research has characterized urban heat and assessed its implications on human life, including ongoing efforts to bridge neighboring disciplines. The research horizon now encompasses complex problems involving a wide range of disciplines, and therefore comprehensive and …
Exploring The Empirical Relationship Between Inner-City Blight And Urban Sprawl In The United States, Eric Fesselmeyer, Kiat Ying Seah
Exploring The Empirical Relationship Between Inner-City Blight And Urban Sprawl In The United States, Eric Fesselmeyer, Kiat Ying Seah
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Urban blight has been found to cause a variety of problems, including negatively affecting the value of surrounding properties and increasing neighborhood crime rates. If the same externalities that give rise to urban sprawl also contribute to urban blight, as is suggested by Brueckner and Helsley (2011), city center vacancy rates-an indication of blight-would increase with the extent of urban sprawl. This study adds to the sparse literature on the empirical relationship between urban sprawl and blight by finding that the city-center census tract vacancy rate is higher in more sprawling cities. The results of this article, therefore, provide support …
Climate Change And Lord Of The Rings?, Winston T. L. Chow
Climate Change And Lord Of The Rings?, Winston T. L. Chow
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Where did we make the ‘wrong turn’? Are we at the end of the road? Winston Chow, one of the lead authors of the 6th Assessment Report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), shares his perspectives on how far down the road the world is on climate change.
Transboundary Air Pollution And Cross-Border Cooperation: Insights From Marine Vessel Emissions Regulations In Hong Kong And Shenzhen, Seung Kyum Kim, Terry Van Gevelt, Paul Joosse, Mia M. Bennett
Transboundary Air Pollution And Cross-Border Cooperation: Insights From Marine Vessel Emissions Regulations In Hong Kong And Shenzhen, Seung Kyum Kim, Terry Van Gevelt, Paul Joosse, Mia M. Bennett
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Many coastal cities regulate shipping emissions within their jurisdictions. However, the transboundary nature of air pollution makes such efforts largely ineffective unless they are accompanied by reciprocal, legally-binding regulatory agreements with neighbouring cities. Due to various technical, economic, and institutional barriers, it has thus far been difficult to isolate the effects of legally-binding cross-border cooperation on vessel emissions at the city-level. We exploit the unique administrative characteristics of Hong Kong and its relationship with neighbouring cities in China's Pearl River Delta to isolate the effect of legally-binding cross-border cooperation. Using a regression discontinuity design, we find that Hong Kong's unilateral …
Sentiment Analysis Of Weather-Related Tweets From Cities Within Hot Climates, Yuliya Dzyuban, Graces N. Y. Ching, Sin Kang Yik, Adrian J. Tan, Peter J. Crank, Shreya Banerjee, Rachel Xin Yi Pek, Winston T. L. Chow
Sentiment Analysis Of Weather-Related Tweets From Cities Within Hot Climates, Yuliya Dzyuban, Graces N. Y. Ching, Sin Kang Yik, Adrian J. Tan, Peter J. Crank, Shreya Banerjee, Rachel Xin Yi Pek, Winston T. L. Chow
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Evidence exists that exposure to weather hazards, particularly in cities subject to heat island and climate change impacts, strongly affects individuals’ physical and mental health. Personal exposure to and sentiments about warm conditions can currently be expressed on social media, and recent research noted that the geotagged, time-stamped, and accessible social media databases can potentially be indicative of the public mood and health for a region. This study attempts to understand the relationships between weather and social media sentiments via Twitter and weather data from 2012 to 2019 for two cities in hot climates: Singapore and Phoenix, Arizona. We first …
Estimating E-Scooter Traffic Flow Using Big Data To Support Planning For Micromobility, Feng Chen, Junfeng Jiao, Haofeng Wang
Estimating E-Scooter Traffic Flow Using Big Data To Support Planning For Micromobility, Feng Chen, Junfeng Jiao, Haofeng Wang
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Dockless e-scooter sharing, as a new shared micromobility service, has quickly gained popularity in recent years. In this paper, we present a practical approach to estimating e-scooter flow patterns without knowing the actual routes taken by the e-scooter riders. Our method takes advantage of a huge open dataset that contains the origins and destinations of millions of trips. We show that our models can help cities better support the emerging shared micromobility service. The additional information generated in the modeling process can also be useful for a more refined analysis of e-scooter trips.
Five Key Points In The Ipcc Report On Climate Change Impacts And Adaptation, Lisa Schipper, Vanessa Castan Broto, Winston T. L. Chow
Five Key Points In The Ipcc Report On Climate Change Impacts And Adaptation, Lisa Schipper, Vanessa Castan Broto, Winston T. L. Chow
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
The latest report from the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) looks at the impacts, adaptation and vulnerabilities associated with the climate crisis, and we are three of the 270 scientists and researchers who wrote it. The document reports stark new findings on the way current global warming of 1.1℃ is impacting natural and human systems, and on how our ability to respond will be increasingly limited with every additional increment of warming.
Technical Report: Reviewing The Relationships Between Urban Morphological Variables And Outdoor Thermal Comfort (Otc) To Assess Comfort Implication Of Densification For Singapore, Shreya Banerjee, Ngai Yan Ching, Sin Kang Yik
Technical Report: Reviewing The Relationships Between Urban Morphological Variables And Outdoor Thermal Comfort (Otc) To Assess Comfort Implication Of Densification For Singapore, Shreya Banerjee, Ngai Yan Ching, Sin Kang Yik
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Majority thermal comfort studies focus on exploring the relationships between subjective parameters such as personal, physiological, psychological, and behavioral attributes and how they shape Outdoor Thermal Comfort (OTC). Although some attempts have been made to analyze the impact of urban morphological variables, but few have explored the effect of urban densification on OTC. Assessing the impact of density attributes is especially important for highly dense cities such as Singapore. Keeping this in consideration, ths study aims to provide a review-based analysis connecting OTC and various density related morphological variables. Firstly, this report analyses existing literature to provide snapshots on various …
Commentary: Coastal Cities Like Singapore Face Outsized Risks – And Opportunities – In A Warming World, Winston T. L. Chow
Commentary: Coastal Cities Like Singapore Face Outsized Risks – And Opportunities – In A Warming World, Winston T. L. Chow
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Many Southeast Asian cities are at the frontline for rapid, concerted and effective climate action, says the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report's lead author Winston Chow.
Prediction Of “L” Train’S Daily Ridership In Downtown Chicago During The Covid-19 Pandemic, Amin Azimian, Junfeng Jiao
Prediction Of “L” Train’S Daily Ridership In Downtown Chicago During The Covid-19 Pandemic, Amin Azimian, Junfeng Jiao
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
In this study, we utilized a random forest model to predict the “L” train’s daily ridership in the Chicago downtown area during the pandemic based on environmental, transportation, and COVID-19-related factors. The results indicated that the model accurately predicts ridership one month in advance. However, its accuracy degraded over time. Moreover, average temperature, stay-at-home order status, and percentage of home renters were found to be the most important factors contributing to ridership.
Cities And Settlements By The Sea, Bruce Glavovic, Richard Dawson, Winston T. L. Chow, Matthias Garschagen, Chandni Singh, Adelle Thomas
Cities And Settlements By The Sea, Bruce Glavovic, Richard Dawson, Winston T. L. Chow, Matthias Garschagen, Chandni Singh, Adelle Thomas
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Cities and settlements (C&S) by the sea are on the frontline of climate change—they face climate-compounded risks that are amongst the highest, but are a key source of innovation in climate resilient development (high confidence)
Technical Summary, Hans Portner, Winston T. L. Chow, Et Al. See Comments For Full List Of Authors
Technical Summary, Hans Portner, Winston T. L. Chow, Et Al. See Comments For Full List Of Authors
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
This technical summary complements and expands the key findings of the Working Group (WG) II contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) presented in the Summary for Policymakers and covers literature accepted for publication by 1 September 2021. It provides technical understanding and is developed from the key findings of chapters and cross-chapter papers (CCPs) as presented in their executive summaries and integrates across them. The report builds on the WGII contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the IPCC and three special reports of the AR6 cycle providing new knowledge and updates. The three special reports are the …
Modeling Factors Contributing To Dockless E-Scooter Injury Accidents In Austin, Texas, Amin Azimian, Junfeng Jiao
Modeling Factors Contributing To Dockless E-Scooter Injury Accidents In Austin, Texas, Amin Azimian, Junfeng Jiao
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Objective: Over the past few years, increased e-scooter ridership has raised concerns about the growing number of injury accidents involving e-scooters. Additionally, given the lack of appropriate e-scooter accident data, the extent to which built environment and socioeconomic factors affect e-scooter safety is unclear. In consideration of these issues, this study was aimed at identifying the factors contributing to the number of e-scooter injury accidents in Austin. Methods: We developed zero-inflated Poisson (ZIP) and zero-inflated negative binomial (ZINB) models on the basis of 2018 dockless e-scooter injury accident data collected from the Patch platform. The results indicated that the ZIP …
Understanding E-Scooter Incidents Patterns In Street Network Perspective: A Case Study Of Travis County, Texas, Junfeng Jiao, Shunhua Bai, Seung Jun Choi
Understanding E-Scooter Incidents Patterns In Street Network Perspective: A Case Study Of Travis County, Texas, Junfeng Jiao, Shunhua Bai, Seung Jun Choi
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Dockless electric scooter (E-scooters) services have emerged in the United States as an alternative form of micro transit in the past few years. With the increasing popularity of E-scooters, it is important for cities to manage their usage to create and maintain safe urban environments. However, E-scooter safety in U.S. urban environments remains unexplored due to the lack of traffic and crash data related to E-scooters. Our study objective is to better understand E-scooter crashes from a street network perspective. New parcel level street network data are obtained from Zillow and curated in Geographic Information System (GIS). We conducted local …
Using Open Source Data To Identify Transit Deserts In Four Major Chinese Cities, Junfeng Jiao, Mingming Cai
Using Open Source Data To Identify Transit Deserts In Four Major Chinese Cities, Junfeng Jiao, Mingming Cai
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
The concept of transit deserts stems from the concept of food deserts. There is substantial research on transit deserts in developed countries. However, there is no known research that has studied this subject in Chinese cities. Using open-source data, this paper identified transit desert areas in four major Chinese cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Wuhan, Chengdu). The results show that: (1) In these four cities, the transit desert areas are mainly concentrated in city centers and hardly occur in any suburban areas, which is very different from the cases in the US. (2) Shanghai has the largest transit-dependent population living in transit …
Understanding The Shared E-Scooter Travels In Austin, Tx, Junfeng Jiao, Shunhua Bai
Understanding The Shared E-Scooter Travels In Austin, Tx, Junfeng Jiao, Shunhua Bai
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
This paper investigated the travel patterns of 1.7 million shared E-scooter trips from April 2018 to February 2019 in Austin, TX. There were more than 6000 active E-scooters in operation each month, generating over 150,000 trips and covered approximately 117,000 miles. During this period, the average travel distance and operation time of E-scooter trips were 0.77 miles and 7.55 min, respectively. We further identified two E-scooter usage hotspots in the city (Downtown Austin and the University of Texas campus). The spatial analysis showed that more trips originated from Downtown Austin than were completed, while the opposite was true for the …
A Data-Driven Load Shape Profile Based Building Benchmarking: Comparing Doe Reference Buildings With A Large Metering Dataset, Young June Park, Clayton Miller, Zoltan Nagy
A Data-Driven Load Shape Profile Based Building Benchmarking: Comparing Doe Reference Buildings With A Large Metering Dataset, Young June Park, Clayton Miller, Zoltan Nagy
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
There are various sustainable policies or labeling programs in building energy benchmarking. However, they are often oriented for the static information of building performances. The installation of smart metering capabilities with building energy system generates unprecedented amount of data. By analyzing such data, buildings can be evaluated in a more comprehensive manner. We propose a data analytic framework to discover dominant load shape patterns and benchmark buildings with respect to these. We applied this method to a simulation dataset (256 DOE reference building models) and compared them to the results of an actual metering dataset (3,829 buildings). Using k-means clustering, …
Indigenous Perceptions Of Climate Anomalies In Malaysian Borneo, Terry Van Gevelt, H. Abok, M. M. Bennett, S. D. Fam, F. George, N. Kulathuramaiyer, C. T. Low, T. Zamane
Indigenous Perceptions Of Climate Anomalies In Malaysian Borneo, Terry Van Gevelt, H. Abok, M. M. Bennett, S. D. Fam, F. George, N. Kulathuramaiyer, C. T. Low, T. Zamane
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Local perceptions of climate anomalies influence adaptation behaviour. Specifically, perceptions that are more accurate and homogenous at the community-level are more likely to facilitate the collective action required to adapt to the local effects of climate anomalies experienced by many indigenous communities. We combine primary data on perceptions of climate anomalies from 200 individuals in six Penan villages in Sarawak, Malaysia with instrumental climate data. We find that perceptions of climate anomalies vary substantially in terms of occurrence and magnitude, and do not generally correlate with instrumental climate data. We operationalise the Penan forest sign language (Oroo’) as a measure …
Zoning Changes And Social Diversity In New York City, 1990–2015, Juan G. Yunda, Junfeng Jiao
Zoning Changes And Social Diversity In New York City, 1990–2015, Juan G. Yunda, Junfeng Jiao
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
The writings of Jane Jacobs led urbanists to advocate for increased social diversity in neighborhoods as a method of promoting vitality in public spaces. Since then, New York City has become both a role model and a testing ground for zoning changes that support this objective. However, since the 2000s community activists and scholars have argued that these zoning changes have led to the dislocation of communities of color and incentivized gentrification. This project analyzed panel social and housing census data from 1990 and 2015 to assess the validity of these arguments. Results suggest that zoning changes have limited and …
The Effect Of Localized Density On Housing Prices In Singapore, Eric Fesselmeyer, Kiat Ying Sky Seah, Jonathan Ci Yi Kwok
The Effect Of Localized Density On Housing Prices In Singapore, Eric Fesselmeyer, Kiat Ying Sky Seah, Jonathan Ci Yi Kwok
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
This paper measures how localized residential density impacts housing prices in Singapore. Using exogenous variation in residential density, we find that an increase in density causes non-trivial decreases in property values: a 10% increase in density decreases price per square foot by between 1.3% and 2%. To the best of our knowledge, ours is the first paper to measure this effect.Further, we find that the negative effect of density is biggest in magnitude for low density apartment projects and the magnitude is decreasing in the density of the project, and that the negative effect of density is increasing in magnitude …
The Effect Of Localized Density On Housing Prices In Singapore, Eric Fesselmeyer, Kiat Ying Sky Seah, Jonathan Ci Yi Kwok
The Effect Of Localized Density On Housing Prices In Singapore, Eric Fesselmeyer, Kiat Ying Sky Seah, Jonathan Ci Yi Kwok
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
This paper measures how localized residential density impacts housing prices in Singapore. Using exogenous variation in residential density, we find that an increase in density causes non-trivial decreases in property values: a 10% increase in density decreases price per square foot by between 1.3% and 2%. To the best of our knowledge, ours is the first paper to measure this effect.Further, we find that the negative effect of density is biggest in magnitude for low density apartment projects and the magnitude is decreasing in the density of the project, and that the negative effect of density is increasing in magnitude …
Unsupervised Load Shape Clustering For Urban Building Performance Assessment, Jimeno A. Fonseca, Clayton Miller, Arno Schlueter
Unsupervised Load Shape Clustering For Urban Building Performance Assessment, Jimeno A. Fonseca, Clayton Miller, Arno Schlueter
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
This paper presents a method to automatically cluster typical days of energy consumption in one or several buildings. The method is based on an optimized version of the Symbolic Aggregate approXimation (SAX) method. SAX is a data mining technique for clustering time series with recent applications in building fault detection and building performance assessment. The number of clusters and accuracy of SAX highly depends on two highly sensitive input variables, i.e., the word size and the alphabet size. We propose the use of the genetic algorithm NSGA-II to optimize the number of words and alphabet size of SAX subjected to …
Estimating And Decomposing Changes In The White-Black Homeownership Gap From 2005 To 2011, Kiat Ying Seah, Eric Fesselmeyer, Kien Le
Estimating And Decomposing Changes In The White-Black Homeownership Gap From 2005 To 2011, Kiat Ying Seah, Eric Fesselmeyer, Kien Le
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
This study evaluates the effects of the recent US housing bust on the White-Black homeownership gap by estimating and decomposing the changes in the distribution of the gap between 2005 and 2011. Our analysis shows that the housing bust did not affect the homeownership gap uniformly. In fact, we find that the gap decreased for households that were the least likely to own and remained unchanged for households that were the most likely to own, and that Black households with around a 50% probability of homeownership were especially vulnerable to the crisis. We also find that the contribution of the …
Estimating And Decomposing Changes In The White-Black Homeownership Gap From 2005 To 2011, Kiat Ying Seah, Eric Fesselmeyer, Kien Le
Estimating And Decomposing Changes In The White-Black Homeownership Gap From 2005 To 2011, Kiat Ying Seah, Eric Fesselmeyer, Kien Le
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
This study evaluates the effects of the recent US housing bust on the White-Black homeownership gap by estimating and decomposing the changes in the distribution of the gap between 2005 and 2011. Our analysis shows that the housing bust did not affect the homeownership gap uniformly. In fact, we find that the gap decreased for households that were the least likely to own and remained unchanged for households that were the most likely to own, and that Black households with around a 50% probability of homeownership were especially vulnerable to the crisis. We also find that the contribution of the …
Does Urban Form Influence Grocery Shopping Frequency? A Study From Seattle, Washington, Usa, Junfeng Jiao, Anne Vernez Moudon, Adam Drewnowski
Does Urban Form Influence Grocery Shopping Frequency? A Study From Seattle, Washington, Usa, Junfeng Jiao, Anne Vernez Moudon, Adam Drewnowski
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to ascertain how elements of the built environment may or may not influence the frequency of grocery shopping. Design/methodology/approach – Using data from the 2009 Seattle Obesity Study, the research investigated the effect of the urban built environment on grocery shopping travel frequency in the Seattle-King County area. Binary and ordered logit models served to estimate the impact of individual characteristics and built environments on grocery shopping travel frequency. Findings – The results showed that the respondents’ attitude towards food, travel mode, and the network distance between homes and stores exerted the …
Long Wave Radiation Exchange For Urban Scale Modelling Within A Co-Simulation Environment, Clayton Miller, Daren Thomas, Jérôme Kämpf, Arno Schlueter
Long Wave Radiation Exchange For Urban Scale Modelling Within A Co-Simulation Environment, Clayton Miller, Daren Thomas, Jérôme Kämpf, Arno Schlueter
Research Collection College of Integrative Studies
This paper describes the implementation of long wave radiation (LWR) exchange as part of a co-simulation process of an urban scale simulation program, CitySim, and a building scale program, EnergyPlus. This coupling process was achieved through the use of functional mockup units (FMU) to exchange various weather, load, and environmental information between the two simulation engines. LWR is an important factor to exchange between the programs as CitySim has more advanced capabilities for radiation exchange calculations from a set of urban buildings and EnergyPlus has a more advanced building heating and cooling load calculation engine. The LWR exchange between surfaces …