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Articles 331 - 360 of 413
Full-Text Articles in Social Psychology
Cash In Hand, Want Better Looking Mate: Significant Resource Cues Raise Reported Mating Standards In Men, Jose C. Yong, Norman P. Li
Cash In Hand, Want Better Looking Mate: Significant Resource Cues Raise Reported Mating Standards In Men, Jose C. Yong, Norman P. Li
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Resources are a cardinal component of male mate value in the sexual exchange between men and women. Inspired by theories and research suggesting a link between mating and resource constructs as well as studies linking money and valuations of others, the current study tests the hypothesis that cues to resource availability may lead to higher mating standards for men, but not women. Participants were exposed to either stacks of paper, a small sum of money (104 Singapore dollars ~USD$84), or a large sum of money (2600 Singapore dollars ~USD$2100). Consistent with the hypothesis, after male – but not female – …
The Antihero In Popular Culture: A Life History Theory Of The Dark Triad, Peter K. Jonason, Gregory D. Webster, David P. Schmitt, Norman P. Li, Laura Crysel
The Antihero In Popular Culture: A Life History Theory Of The Dark Triad, Peter K. Jonason, Gregory D. Webster, David P. Schmitt, Norman P. Li, Laura Crysel
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
The Dark Triad of personality is composed of narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism. Despite the common belief that these traits are undesirable, the media is awash with characters that embody the Dark Triad. Characters like Gregory House, M.D., Batman (a.k.a. the Dark Knight), and James BOND all embody these traits and are some of the most popular media franchises today. As entertaining as these characters are, they provide us with a window into the dark side of human nature. Instead of treating the dark side of human nature as inherently maladaptive, we provide an alternative view that, despite their costs, traits …
Virtue And Virility: Governing With Honor And The Association Or Dissociation Between Martial Honor And Moral Character Of U.S. Presidents, Legislators, And Justices, Dov Cohen, Angela K. Y. Leung
Virtue And Virility: Governing With Honor And The Association Or Dissociation Between Martial Honor And Moral Character Of U.S. Presidents, Legislators, And Justices, Dov Cohen, Angela K. Y. Leung
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
In many honor cultures, honor as martial honor and honor as character/integrity are often both subsumed under the banner of honor. In nonhonor cultures, these qualities are often separable. The present study examines political elites, revealing that Presidents, Congresspeople, and Supreme Court Justices from the Southern United States with a greater commitment to martial honor (as indexed by their military service) also show more integrity, character, and moral leadership. This relationship, however, does not hold for nonsoutherners. The present studies illustrate the need to examine both between culture differences in cultural logics (as these logics connect various behaviors under a …
It Is Not All About The Benjamins: Understanding Preferences For Mates With Resources, Peter K. Jonason, Norman P. Li, Laura Madson
It Is Not All About The Benjamins: Understanding Preferences For Mates With Resources, Peter K. Jonason, Norman P. Li, Laura Madson
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
We contend that preferences for mates with resources or money might be calibrated on where a potential mate gets her/his money. In three studies (N = 668) we examined the nature of individuals’ preferences for mates who have resources or money. Both sexes preferred a long-term mate who has earned her/his money over other sources. In particular, women preferred mates who earned their money over other potential means of getting resources (i.e., inheritance, embezzlement, and windfall). Women maintained a high level of interest in mates who earned their money regardless of duration of the mateship whereas men became less interested …
National Accounts Of Well-Being, Ed Diener, William Tov
National Accounts Of Well-Being, Ed Diener, William Tov
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
National accounts of subjective well-being should be used to assess the various facets of citizen’s well-being such as life satisfaction, trust in others, positive emotions, meaning and purpose in life, and engagement and interest. Although economic indicators have reigned within policy debates, the purpose of the economic indicators is ultimately to enhance “happiness”—subjective well-being. National measures of well-being that are collected systematically at periodic intervals will not only help focus attention on wellbeing as a major goal of societies, but can give information to leaders about policy alternatives, and thus inform policy debates in a way that complements economic analyses. …
Human Mating, Peter K. Jonason, Katherine A. Valentine, Norman P. Li
Human Mating, Peter K. Jonason, Katherine A. Valentine, Norman P. Li
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Theories and empirical findings of human mating are addressed in this article. Because of differential parental investment, men generally prefer short-term mating and women generally prefer long-term mating, and therefore must negotiate between their differential ideals. Booty-calls, friends-with-benefits, and consensual nonmonogamy are presented as compromises between male and female relationship type ideals. Sexual conflict in the form of infidelity, jealousy, sexual harassment, and rape occur when there is a break-down in negotiations. The adaptive reasons behind these behaviors and preferences are explored.
Cross-Cultural Research, William Tov, Christie N. Scollon
Cross-Cultural Research, William Tov, Christie N. Scollon
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
We divide our review of cross-cultural applications of experience sampling methodology (ESM) into five main areas. First, we review studies that compare online (via ESM) and retrospective responses (via single-session surveys) and show that the two measures lead to different conclusions about cultural differences. Second, we review studies that highlight the distinction between quantity (i.e., how often certain events occur) and subjective quality (i.e., how events are experienced), and demonstrate that cultural differences may exist in either or both of these aspects. Third, we review studies that examine cultural differences in intra-psychic phenomena or within-person correlations (i.e., how psychological states …
Cultural Similarities And Differences In The Conceptualization Of Emotion, Christie N. Scollon, William Tov
Cultural Similarities And Differences In The Conceptualization Of Emotion, Christie N. Scollon, William Tov
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Research on emotional experiences across cultures is reviewed from a cultural psychological perspective. Psychometric approaches to evaluating the structure of emotions has consistently replicated two broad dimensions (positive and negative affect) in several countries. Nevertheless, there are cultural differences in other aspects of emotional experience such as the relation between positive and negative affect, the nature of specific emotions (e.g., pride and affection), and the types of emotions that are valued. Recent research on the cognitive organization of emotional experiences may provide additional insights and these methods await broader application in crosscultural research.
Going Beyond The Multicultural Experience-Creativity Link: The Mediating Role Of Emotions, Chi-Ying Cheng, Angela K. Y. Leung, Tsung-Yu Wu
Going Beyond The Multicultural Experience-Creativity Link: The Mediating Role Of Emotions, Chi-Ying Cheng, Angela K. Y. Leung, Tsung-Yu Wu
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
This research examines the mediating role of emotions implicated in the multicultural experience—creativity link. We propose that when individuals are dealing with apparent cultural contradictions upon encountering two cultures simultaneously, mentally juxtaposing dissonant cultural stimuli could lower positive affect or increase negative affect, which could in turn induce a deeper level of cognitive processing of cultural discrepancies and inspire creativity. Two studies compared dual cultural exposure versus single cultural exposure among bicultural Singaporeans (Study 1) and compared self-relevant (jointly presenting local and foreign cultures) versus self-irrelevant (jointly presenting foreign cultures only) dual cultural exposure among monocultural Taiwanese (Study 2). As …
Sex Differences In Cooperation: A Meta-Analytic Review Of Social Dilemmas, Daniel Balliet, Norman P. Li, Shane J. Macfarlan, Mark Van Vugt
Sex Differences In Cooperation: A Meta-Analytic Review Of Social Dilemmas, Daniel Balliet, Norman P. Li, Shane J. Macfarlan, Mark Van Vugt
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Although it is commonly believed that women are kinder and more cooperative than men, there is conflicting evidence for this assertion. Current theories of sex differences in social behavior suggest that it may be useful to examine in what situations men and women are likely to differ in cooperation. Here, we derive predictions from both sociocultural and evolutionary perspectives on context-specific sex differences in cooperation, and we conduct a unique meta-analytic study of 272 effect sizes—sampled across 50 years of research—on social dilemmas to examine several potential moderators. The overall average effect size is not statistically different from zero (d …
The Effects Of Culture And Friendship On Rewarding Honesty And Punishing Deception, Cynthia S. Wang, Angela K.-Y. Leung, Michelle Ya Hui See, Xiang Yu Gao
The Effects Of Culture And Friendship On Rewarding Honesty And Punishing Deception, Cynthia S. Wang, Angela K.-Y. Leung, Michelle Ya Hui See, Xiang Yu Gao
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
The present research explores whether the type of relationship one holds with deceptive or honest actors influences cross-cultural differences in reward and punishment. Research suggests that Americans reward honest actors more than they punish deceptive perpetrators, whereas East Asians reward and punish equally (Wang & Leung, 2010). Our research suggests that the type of relationship with the actor matters for East Asians, but not for Americans. East Asians exhibit favoritism toward their friends by rewarding more than punishing them, but reward and punish equally when the actors are strangers (Experiment 1 and 2); Americans reward more than they punish regardless …
Relating Trait Self-Control And Forgiveness Within Prosocials And Proselfs: Compensatory Versus Synergistic Models, Daniel Balliet, Norman P. Li, Jeff Joireman
Relating Trait Self-Control And Forgiveness Within Prosocials And Proselfs: Compensatory Versus Synergistic Models, Daniel Balliet, Norman P. Li, Jeff Joireman
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
The present research tested 2 competing models specifying how 2 traits (concern with the well-being of others and self-control) interact to predict forgiveness. According to the compensatory model, forgiveness requires being high on either trait; according to the synergistic model, forgiveness requires being high on both traits. Two preliminary studies demonstrated the main effect of trait (Study 1a) and primed (Study 1b) self-control on forgiveness. Three primary studies consistently supported the compensatory model in predicting willingness to forgive a partner who behaves noncooperatively in a 2-alternative prisoner’s dilemma (Study 2), a continuous give-some dilemma (Study 3), and a 2-alternative maximizing …
Economic Inequality Is Linked To Biased Self-Perception, Steve Loughnan, Peter Kuppens, Juri Allik, Katalin Balazs, Soledad De Lemus, Kitty Dumont, Rafael Gargurevich, Istvan Hidegkuti, Bernhard Leidner, Jennifer Yuk-Yue Tong
Economic Inequality Is Linked To Biased Self-Perception, Steve Loughnan, Peter Kuppens, Juri Allik, Katalin Balazs, Soledad De Lemus, Kitty Dumont, Rafael Gargurevich, Istvan Hidegkuti, Bernhard Leidner, Jennifer Yuk-Yue Tong
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
People’s self-perception biases often lead them to see themselves as better than the average person (a phenomenon known as self-enhancement). This bias varies across cultures, and variations are typically explained using cultural variables, such as individualism versus collectivism. We propose that socioeconomic differences among societies—specifically, relative levels of economic inequality—play an important but unrecognized role in how people evaluate themselves. Evidence for self-enhancement was found in 15 diverse nations, but the magnitude of the bias varied. Greater self-enhancement was found in societies with more income inequality, and income inequality predicted cross-cultural differences in self-enhancement better than did individualism/ collectivism. These …
Mate-Selection And The Dark Triad: Facilitating A Short-Term Mating Strategy And Creating A Volatile Environment, Peter K. Jonason, Katherine A. Valentine, Norman P. Li, Carmelita L. Harbeson
Mate-Selection And The Dark Triad: Facilitating A Short-Term Mating Strategy And Creating A Volatile Environment, Peter K. Jonason, Katherine A. Valentine, Norman P. Li, Carmelita L. Harbeson
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
The current study (N = 242) seeks to establish the relationship between traits known collectively as the Dark Triad – narcissism, psychopathy, Machiavellianism – and mating standards and preferences. Using a budget-allocation task, we correlated scores on the Dark Triad traits with mate preferences for a long-term and short-term mate. Men scoring high on the Dark Triad may be more indiscriminate than most when selecting for short-term mates in order to widen their prospects. Furthermore, those high on the Dark Triad – psychopathy in particular – tend to select for mates based on self-interest, assortative mating, or a predilection for …
Positioning The Booty-Call Relationship On The Spectrum Of Relationships: Sexual But More Emotional Than One-Night Stands, Peter K. Jonason, Norman P. Li, Jessica Richardson
Positioning The Booty-Call Relationship On The Spectrum Of Relationships: Sexual But More Emotional Than One-Night Stands, Peter K. Jonason, Norman P. Li, Jessica Richardson
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Most research on human sexuality has focused on long-term pairbonds and one-night stands. However, growing evidence suggests there are relationships that do not fit cleanly into either of those categories. One of these relationships is a ‘‘booty-call relationship.’’ The purpose of this study was to describe the sexual and emotional nature of booty-call relationships by (a) examining the types of emotional and sexual acts involved in booty-call relationships and (b) comparing the frequency of those acts in booty-call relationships to one-night stands and serious long-term relationships. In addition, the manner in which sociosexuality is associated with the commission of these …
Interview On Subjective Well-Being, David Chan
Interview On Subjective Well-Being, David Chan
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
No abstract provided.
The Incompatibility Of Materialism And The Desire For Children: Psychological Insights Into The Fertility Discrepancy Among Modern Countries, Norman P. Li, Lily Patel, Daniel Balliet, William Tov, Christie N. Scollon
The Incompatibility Of Materialism And The Desire For Children: Psychological Insights Into The Fertility Discrepancy Among Modern Countries, Norman P. Li, Lily Patel, Daniel Balliet, William Tov, Christie N. Scollon
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
We examined factors related to attitudes toward marriage and the importance of having children in both the US and Singapore. Path analysis indicated that life dissatisfaction leads to materialism, and both of these factors lead to favorable attitudes toward marriage, which leads to greater desire for children. Further analysis indicated this model"We examined factors related to attitudes toward marriage and the importance of having children in both the US and Singapore. Path analysis indicated that life dissatisfaction leads to materialism, and both of these factors lead to favorable attitudes toward marriage, which leads to greater desire for children. Further analysis …
Let’S Get Serious: Communicating Commitment In Romantic Relationship Formation, Joshua M. Ackerman, Vladas Griskevicius, Norman P. Li
Let’S Get Serious: Communicating Commitment In Romantic Relationship Formation, Joshua M. Ackerman, Vladas Griskevicius, Norman P. Li
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Are men or women more likely to confess love first in romantic relationships? And how do men and women feel when their partners say “I love you”? An evolutionary– economics perspective contends that women and men incur different potential costs and gain different potential benefits from confessing love. Across 6 studies testing current and former romantic relationships, we found that although people think that women are the first to confess love and feel happier when they receive such confessions, it is actually men who confess love first and feel happier when receiving confessions. Consistent with predictions from our model, additional …
Within- And Between-Culture Variation: Individual Differences And The Cultural Logics Of Honor, Face, And Dignity Cultures, Angela K.-Y. Leung, Dov Cohen
Within- And Between-Culture Variation: Individual Differences And The Cultural Logics Of Honor, Face, And Dignity Cultures, Angela K.-Y. Leung, Dov Cohen
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
The CuPS (Culture × Person × Situation) approach attempts to jointly consider culture and individual differences, without treating either as noise and without reducing one to the other. Culture is important because it helps define psychological situations and create meaningful clusters of behavior according to particular logics. Individual differences are important because individuals vary in the extent to which they endorse or reject a culture's ideals. Further, because different cultures are organized by different logics, individual differences mean something different in each. Central to these studies are concepts of honor-related violence and individual worth as being inalienable versus socially conferred. …
Mate Preferences In The Us And Singapore: A Cross-Cultural Test Of The Mate Preference Priority Model, Norman P. Li, Katherine A. Valentine, Lily Patel
Mate Preferences In The Us And Singapore: A Cross-Cultural Test Of The Mate Preference Priority Model, Norman P. Li, Katherine A. Valentine, Lily Patel
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Sex differences have been found in mate preferences across several decades. Especially for long-term partners, men tend to value physical attractiveness and women tend to value social status. However, the sexes both value various other traits even more highly. Such findings thus diminish the importance of the sex differences and challenge the theoretical importance that evolutionary psychologists place on physical attractiveness and social status. Using a budget allocation methodology to examine mate preferences in both the US and Singapore, we found not only the usual sex differences, but also evidence that men prioritize physical attractiveness and women prioritize social status …
Universal Biases In Self-Perception: Better And More Human Than Average, Steve Loughnan, Bernhard Leidner, Guy Doron, Nick Haslam, Yoshihisa Kashima, Jennifer Tong, Victoria Yeung
Universal Biases In Self-Perception: Better And More Human Than Average, Steve Loughnan, Bernhard Leidner, Guy Doron, Nick Haslam, Yoshihisa Kashima, Jennifer Tong, Victoria Yeung
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
There is a well-established tendency for people to see themselves as better than average (self-enhancement), although the universality of this phenomenon is contested. Much less well-known is the tendency for people to see themselves as more human than average (self-humanizing). We examined these biases in six diverse nations: Australia, Germany, Israel, Japan, Singapore, and the USA. Both biases were found in all nations. The self-humanizing effect was obtained independent of self-enhancement, and was stronger than self-enhancement in two nations (Germany and Japan). Self-humanizing was not specific to Western or English-speaking cultures and its magnitude was less cross-culturally variable than self-enhancement. …
The Cultural Dynamics Of Rewarding Honesty And Punishing Deception, Cynthia S. Wang, Angela K. Y. Leung
The Cultural Dynamics Of Rewarding Honesty And Punishing Deception, Cynthia S. Wang, Angela K. Y. Leung
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Recent research suggests that individuals reward honesty more than they punish deception. Five experiments showed that different patterns of rewards and punishments emerge for North American and East Asian cultures. Experiment 1 demonstrated that Americans rewarded more than they punished, whereas East Asians rewarded and punished in equivalent amounts. Experiments 2 and 3 revealed that these divergent patterns by culture could be explained by greater social mobility experienced by Americans. Experiments 4 and 5 examined how certain consequences of social mobility, approach—avoidance behavioral motivations and trust and felt obligation, can lead to disparate reward and punishment decisions within the two …
How Does Facebook Browsing Affect Self-Awareness And Social Well-Being: The Role Of Narcissism, Lin Qiu, Han Lin, Angela K. Y. Leung
How Does Facebook Browsing Affect Self-Awareness And Social Well-Being: The Role Of Narcissism, Lin Qiu, Han Lin, Angela K. Y. Leung
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Social networking sites such as Facebook have become extremely popular recently. In this research, we studied how Facebook browsing affects self-awareness and social well-being. Our results show that after Facebook browsing, individuals high in narcissism raised their public self-awareness while those low in narcissism reduced their public self-awareness. We also found that individuals low in narcissism perceived their friends' lives to be better than their own and consequently experienced negative social well-being and emotion. However, this effect did not occur for individuals high in narcissism.
The Effect Of Group Attitude Diversity And Attitude Strength On Subsequent Cooperation, Ming-Hong Tsai, Margaret Shih
The Effect Of Group Attitude Diversity And Attitude Strength On Subsequent Cooperation, Ming-Hong Tsai, Margaret Shih
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Groups often have members who hold opposing opinions on specific issues. The presence of undecided people within a group may promote cooperation among group members who hold opposing views on an issue under consideration. The study examined the joint effects of group attitude diversity (i.e. mixed attitude diversity vs. polarized attitude diversity) and one’s strength of attitude on the cooperation. In groups considering a controversial issue with no undecided group members (i.e. polarized attitude diversity), people with strong attitudes were less likely than those with weak attitudes to cooperate with group members who held opposing views. However, the above differences …
Understanding The Psychological Motives Behind Microblogging, Lin Qiu, Angela K. Y. Leung, Jun Hao Ho, Qi Min Yeung, Kevin Joseph Francis, Pei Fen Chua
Understanding The Psychological Motives Behind Microblogging, Lin Qiu, Angela K. Y. Leung, Jun Hao Ho, Qi Min Yeung, Kevin Joseph Francis, Pei Fen Chua
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
This research aims to understand the psychological motives behind microblogging. We conducted two studies to investigate if social exclusion and existential anxiety would lead to a high tendency to microblog. Our results show that participants did not use microblogging to satisfy their needs for social connection and affiliation, but highly extraverted participants did use it to relieve their existential anxiety.
Who Is James Bond? The Dark Triad As An Agentic Social Style, Peter K. Jonason, Norman P. Li, Emily A. Teicher
Who Is James Bond? The Dark Triad As An Agentic Social Style, Peter K. Jonason, Norman P. Li, Emily A. Teicher
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
If the Dark Triad are costly traits for individuals to have and individuals are predisposed to avoid interacting with selfish individuals, how do those who have those traits extract resources from their environment? We contend that a specific set of personality traits will enable individuals to do so. We showed that those who are disagreeable, extraverted, open, and have high self-esteem along with low levels of neuroticism and conscientiousness score high on the Dark Triad (Study 1: N = 216). Additionally, having a more individualistic and competitive approach to others and not a strongly altruistic orientation will also help those …
New Well-Being Measures: Short Scales To Assess Flourishing And Positive And Negative Feelings, Ed Diener, Derrick Wirtz, William Tov, Chu Kim-Prieto, Dong-Won Choi, Shigehiro Oishi, Robert Biswas-Diener
New Well-Being Measures: Short Scales To Assess Flourishing And Positive And Negative Feelings, Ed Diener, Derrick Wirtz, William Tov, Chu Kim-Prieto, Dong-Won Choi, Shigehiro Oishi, Robert Biswas-Diener
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Measures of well-being were created to assess psychological flourishing and feelings—positive feelings, negative feelings, and the difference between the two. The scales were evaluated in a sample of 689 college students from six locations. The Flourishing Scale is a brief 8-item summary measure of the respondent’s self-perceived success in important areas such as relationships, self-esteem, purpose, and optimism. The scale provides a single psychological well-being score. The measure has good psychometric properties, and is strongly associated with other psychological well-being scales. The Scale of Positive and Negative Experience produces a score for positive feelings (6 items), a score for negative …
The Attractive Female Body Weight And Female Body Dissatisfaction In 26 Countries Across 10 World Regions: Results Of The International Body Project I, Viren Swami, David A. Frederick, Toivo Aavik, Lidia Alcalay, Juri Allik, Donna Anderson, Norman P. Li
The Attractive Female Body Weight And Female Body Dissatisfaction In 26 Countries Across 10 World Regions: Results Of The International Body Project I, Viren Swami, David A. Frederick, Toivo Aavik, Lidia Alcalay, Juri Allik, Donna Anderson, Norman P. Li
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
This study reports results from the first International Body Project (IBP-I), which surveyed 7,434 individuals in 10 major world regions about body weight ideals and body dissatisfaction. Participants completed the female Contour Drawing Figure Rating Scale (CDFRS) and self-reported their exposure to Western and local media. Results indicated there were significant cross-regional differences in the ideal female figure and body dissatisfaction, but effect sizes were small across high-socioeconomic-status (SES) sites. Within cultures, heavier bodies were preferred in low-SES sites compared to high-SES sites in Malaysia and South Africa (ds = 1.94-2.49) but not in Austria. Participant age, body mass index …
The Costs And Benefits Of The Dark Triad: Implications For Mate Poaching And Mate Retention Tactics, Peter K. Jonason, Norman P. Li, David M. Buss
The Costs And Benefits Of The Dark Triad: Implications For Mate Poaching And Mate Retention Tactics, Peter K. Jonason, Norman P. Li, David M. Buss
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
The Dark Triad – narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy – have traditionally been considered to be undesirable traits. However, emerging work suggest that not only may there be a positive side to possessing these traits but they may also serve important adaptive functions, even if the strategies associated with them are viewed as socially undesirable. In an online survey (N = 336), we investigated the costs and benefits of the Dark Triad within the domain of mating psychology. The social style and lower order personality traits of the Dark Triad traits facilitated increased mateships in the form of poaching mates from …
Conscientiousness And Forgivingness: A Meta-Analysis, Daniel Balliet
Conscientiousness And Forgivingness: A Meta-Analysis, Daniel Balliet
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
Research examining the relationship between the Big Five traits and forgivingness has focused primarily on the traits agreeableness and neuroticism. To date, there are mixed findings on the relationship between conscientiousness and forgivingness. This paper presents research and theory that predicts a positive relationship between conscientiousness and forgivingness, and in order to examine this hypothesis, conducts a quantitative review of 15 studies (n = 2285) reporting this relationship. This analysis results in a small positive effect size (r = .17). Implications and directions for future research are discussed.