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Articles 211 - 240 of 327
Full-Text Articles in Child Psychology
The Common Core: An Enhancement Or Hindrance For The Youth Of America?, Haley L. Alderete, Haley L. Alderete
The Common Core: An Enhancement Or Hindrance For The Youth Of America?, Haley L. Alderete, Haley L. Alderete
CMC Senior Theses
Education in America differs from other nations and may benefit from modeling some of these foreign practices. Although there are many improvements that the country could make, curriculum could be one of the sources of inadequacy in the education system and is often what receives the most attention. Therefore, the subsequent sections will explore the United States’ major attempt in improving education through creating consistency through the Common Core curriculum. In all, if the United States seeks to maintain its power in various sectors, it must strengthen its education system to ensure success.
The Green Classroom Initiative: Developing A Non-Formal Educational Resource To Promote Positive Youth Development In An Elementary School In The Central Valley Region Of Costa Rica., Marlee Cea
Capstone Collection
While Costa Rica is not the most under-developed country in Central America, it still experiences poverty and school drop outs on par with neighboring countries and some exceptional regions of the United States. The primary focus of this thesis is to discuss how the “Green Classroom” initiative, a Peace Corps Volunteer’s attempt to create sustainable change, is rooted in modern educational theories; and how they have influenced the organizations and practical methodologies used to engineer this project. A secondary focus is on the process the volunteer and vital project partners experienced to create a sustainable educational resource for a primary …
Exploring Barriers To The Generalization Of Social Skills Interventions For Children Diagnosed With Asd: A Qualitative Analysis Of ‘Youth Engagement Through Intervention’, Zachary Shindorf
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Many children who are diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) have difficulty with social skills and maintaining friendships. In turn, many social skills interventions have been developed to aid in the treatment of children diagnosed with ASD. Children with ASD, however, have difficulty generalizing the skills learned in social skills interventions to more natural settings like the home and school. This study, therefore, explored the barriers to the generalization of a social skills intervention, Youth Engagement Through Intervention (YETI) for children with ASD. Barriers to the generalization of YETI were explored through the qualitative examination of parents’ acceptability of the …
Group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Over Individual Cognitive Behavioral Therapy? A Meta-Analysis Of Effective Treatment Of Anxiety Disorders In Middle Childhood, Emily A. Edwards
Group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Over Individual Cognitive Behavioral Therapy? A Meta-Analysis Of Effective Treatment Of Anxiety Disorders In Middle Childhood, Emily A. Edwards
Electronic Theses, Projects, and Dissertations
Anxiety is a commonly diagnosed disorder in middle childhood that affects many aspects of the child’s life. Effective treatment is needed so that children are able to experience fewer or no symptoms of anxiety and to manage anxiety. Cognitive behavioral treatment (CBT) is widely used as a treatment for children with anxiety. CBT can either be facilitated in an individual or group format but there are inconsistencies in the literature regarding which modality is most effective. A meta-analysis was conducted to compare the effectiveness of individual CBT (ICBT) and group CBT (GCBT) in treating school-aged children with anxiety disorders. Eligible …
School Psychologists’ Training And Knowledge Of Tourette Syndrome, Leticia Cornejo
School Psychologists’ Training And Knowledge Of Tourette Syndrome, Leticia Cornejo
Educational Studies Dissertations
A web-based survey was conducted that included 97 practicing school psychologists in California. The results from the survey indicated that the majority (88%) of respondents were knowledgeable about Tourette Syndrome. Many respondents (28%) had never worked with a student with Tourette’s, 20% had at least one case, and 52% indicated that they had worked with more than two cases in their careers as school psychologists. The majority of respondents indicated that their school psychology program did not adequately train them to assess or counsel students with Tourette’s. The majority of participants also did not feel confident to work with students …
Trajectories Of Anxious Withdrawal In Early Childhood, Irina N. Kalutskaya
Trajectories Of Anxious Withdrawal In Early Childhood, Irina N. Kalutskaya
College of Education and Human Sciences: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research
The purpose of this study was to examine the developmental trajectory of anxious withdrawal in a group of 3-year old children in transition to kindergarten. This study also examined the role of high quality classroom environments for children, and the role of multiple risk factors for parents on development of children’s anxious withdrawal. The current sample consisted of 1,938 3-year old children (49% female) followed across four time points (Fall 2009, Spring 2010, Spring 2011, and Spring 2012) as a part of the Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES 2009), 20% of the children were White, non-Hispanic, 35% …
Four Decades Of Research On School Bullying: An Introduction, Shelley Hymel, Susan M. Swearer
Four Decades Of Research On School Bullying: An Introduction, Shelley Hymel, Susan M. Swearer
Department of Educational Psychology: Faculty Publications
This article provides an introductory overview of findings from the past 40 years of research on bullying among school-aged children and youth. Research on definitional and assessment issues in studying bullying and victimization is reviewed, and data on prevalence rates, stability, and forms of bullying behavior are summarized, setting the stage for the 5 articles that comprise this American Psychologist special issue on bullying and victimization. These articles address bullying, victimization, psychological sequela and consequences, ethical, legal, and theoretical issues facing educators, researchers, and practitioners, and effective prevention and intervention efforts. The goal of this special issue is to provide …
Understanding The Psychology Of Bullying: Moving Toward A Social-Ecological Diathesis–Stress Model, Susan M. Swearer, Shelley Hymel
Understanding The Psychology Of Bullying: Moving Toward A Social-Ecological Diathesis–Stress Model, Susan M. Swearer, Shelley Hymel
Department of Educational Psychology: Faculty Publications
With growing recognition that bullying is a complex phenomenon, influenced by multiple factors, research findings to date have been understood within a social-ecological framework. Consistent with this model, we review research on the known correlates and contributing factors in bullying/victimization within the individual, family, peer group, school and community. Recognizing the fluid and dynamic nature of involvement in bullying, we then expand on this model and consider research on the consequences of bullying involvement, as either victim or bully or both, and propose a social-ecological, diathesis– stress model for understanding the bullying dynamic and its impact. Specifically, we frame involvement …
Do Cyberbullies Really Want To Hurt Others?, Danielle Law
Do Cyberbullies Really Want To Hurt Others?, Danielle Law
Clear Language Summaries
Cyberbullying occurs when computer and mobile technologies are used to intentionally harm others. When communicating online there are two basic motivations for online aggression: whether they are posting mean things with intention to harm, or whether they are engaging in these behaviours to defend themselves. This research found that the majority of teenagers are not intentionally mean; rather, they are navigating a world of miscommunication that lends itself to retaliation that spirals out of control in aggressive ways. A small percentage of teens are deliberately malicious and require special intervention. When educating teens about cyberbullying it is important to understand …
Ron Taffel: Visiting Scholar At Bank Street, Anne Santa, Buffy Smith
Ron Taffel: Visiting Scholar At Bank Street, Anne Santa, Buffy Smith
Progressive Education in Context
Discusses a yearlong discourse at Bank Street College, when Ron Taffel, author and well-known psychologist was the visiting scholar for the 2011-2012 academic year.
Mexican-Origin Parents’ Work Conditions And Adolescents’ Adjustment, Lorey A. Wheeler, Kimberly A. Updegraff, Ann Crouter
Mexican-Origin Parents’ Work Conditions And Adolescents’ Adjustment, Lorey A. Wheeler, Kimberly A. Updegraff, Ann Crouter
Nebraska Center for Research on Children, Youth, Families, and Schools: Faculty Publications
Mexican-origin parents’ work experiences are a distal extra-familial context for adolescents’ adjustment. This two-wave multi-informant study examined the prospective mechanisms linking parents’ work conditions (i.e., self-direction, work pressure, workplace discrimination) to adolescents’ adjustment (i.e., educational expectations, depressive symptoms, risky behavior) across the transition to high school drawing on work socialization and spillover models. We examined the indirect effects of parental work conditions on adolescent adjustment through parents’ psychological functioning (i.e., depressive symptoms, role overload) and aspects of the parent-adolescent relationship (i.e., parental solicitation, parent-adolescent conflict), as well as moderation by adolescent gender. Participants were 246 predominantly immigrant, Mexican-origin, two-parent families …
Strategies To Support Parent Engagement During Home Visits In Early Head Start And Head Start, Lisa Knoche, Christine Marvin, Susan M. Sheridan
Strategies To Support Parent Engagement During Home Visits In Early Head Start And Head Start, Lisa Knoche, Christine Marvin, Susan M. Sheridan
Nebraska Center for Research on Children, Youth, Families, and Schools: Faculty Publications
This study explores strategies used by early childhood professionals (ECPs) involved in a school readiness intervention to support parent engagement in young children’s learning. Thirty-two ECPs were recorded during home visits with young children and their families who were enrolled in Early Head Start and Head Start programming. Frequency of strategy use is reported, and strategy use is significantly correlated with rates of parent-ECP interactions during visits but not to parent-child interaction rates nor with overall quality ratings of parent-child engagement. ECPs’ overall success in promoting parent engagement was positively and significantly correlated with ECPs’ efforts to elicit parent observations …
Parent Engagement During Home Visits In Early Head Start And Head Start: Useful Strategies For Practitioners, Lisa Knoche, Christine Marvin, Susan M. Sheridan
Parent Engagement During Home Visits In Early Head Start And Head Start: Useful Strategies For Practitioners, Lisa Knoche, Christine Marvin, Susan M. Sheridan
Nebraska Center for Research on Children, Youth, Families, and Schools: Faculty Publications
This study explores strategies used by early childhood professionals (ECPs) involved in a school readiness intervention to support parent engagement in young children’s learning. In this study, we used video recordings to understand the ECP-parent interactions during Early Head Start and Head Start home visits. We coded the videos for the number of parent engagement strategies that were used by ECPs as well as the quality of parent engagement during visits, including the amount of parent-child interaction that took place during the visits. Findings have implications for the implementation of the Head Start Parent, Family and Community Engagement (PFCE) Framework, …
Mexican-American Adolescents’ Gender-Typed Characteristics: The Role Of Sibling And Friend Characteristics, Norma J. Perez-Brena, Lorey A. Wheeler, Kimberly A. Updegraff, David R. Shaefer
Mexican-American Adolescents’ Gender-Typed Characteristics: The Role Of Sibling And Friend Characteristics, Norma J. Perez-Brena, Lorey A. Wheeler, Kimberly A. Updegraff, David R. Shaefer
Nebraska Center for Research on Children, Youth, Families, and Schools: Faculty Publications
This study examined the role of sibling and friend characteristics in Mexican-American youth’s gender-typed characteristics (i.e., attitudes, interests, and leisure activities) in early versus middle adolescence using a sibling design. Mexican-American 7th graders (M = 12.51 years; SD = .58) and their older siblings (M = 15.48 years; SD = 1.57) from 246 families participated in home interviews and a series of seven nightly phone calls. Results revealed that younger/early adolescent siblings reported more traditional gender role attitudes than their older/middle adolescent siblings and older brothers were more traditional in their attitudes than older sisters. When comparing siblings’ …
Finding Childcare For The Disabled Child: The Process And Decisions Through The Primary Caregiver’S Lens, Misty Dawn Torres
Finding Childcare For The Disabled Child: The Process And Decisions Through The Primary Caregiver’S Lens, Misty Dawn Torres
Antioch University Dissertations & Theses
In this qualitative, Grounded Theory study, the researcher examined the process that primary caregivers go through when selecting a childcare placement for children who have special needs. Data were collected through participant interviews with primary caregivers (n=10) who responded to recruitment notices posted on (1) listservs by organizations directly affiliated with early intervention and child care services; (2) local Internet classified sites; and (3) through word of mouth. The research demonstrated that caregivers who learned of their child’s disability in a prenatal diagnosis or prior to an adoption identified with having a greater sense of choice and control over their …
The Effects Of Language Complexity On Natural And Emotion Concept Formation In Early Language Learners, Stephanie Eileen Jett
The Effects Of Language Complexity On Natural And Emotion Concept Formation In Early Language Learners, Stephanie Eileen Jett
Dissertations
The present study investigated the role of language complexity in natural and emotion concept formation ability in young children (two- to five-year-olds). Language complexity was measured by selections from the Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Early Childhood Development II, and concept formation was assessed at three levels of abstraction. The natural concepts were presented as two alternative discriminations on a touch-screen computer, as follows: subordinate level (lions versus tigers), basic level (cats versus dogs), and superordinate level (animals versus nonanimals). The following emotion categories were discriminated: subordinate level (anger versus sadness), basic level (positive [happiness and positive surprise] versus negative [anger …
Does Video Game Use Exacerbate The Relation Between Neurophysiological Deficits And Adhd Symptoms In Children And Adolescents?, James Kenneth Goodlad Iii
Does Video Game Use Exacerbate The Relation Between Neurophysiological Deficits And Adhd Symptoms In Children And Adolescents?, James Kenneth Goodlad Iii
Dissertations
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is diagnosed based on behavioral symptoms but is thought to have a significant heritable neurological basis, and several brain structures have been implicated. Recent research has focused on the role of environmental factors that may influence the behavioral expression of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity in children and teens, particularly when a biological predisposition exists. This study sought to broaden the literature base by examining the extent to which one environmental factor—video game use—moderated the relation between neuropsychological deficits in attention and inhibition and the behavioral symptoms of ADHD. It was hypothesized that gaming frequency and duration as well …
The Phenomenon Of Abstract Cognition Among Scholastic Chess Participants: A Case Study, Brent C. Laws
The Phenomenon Of Abstract Cognition Among Scholastic Chess Participants: A Case Study, Brent C. Laws
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
A qualitative investigation was conducted to explore the phenomenon of abstract cognition among a purposive sample of 5 secondary scholastic chess club participants. The case study enabled the researcher to explore the faculties of abstract cognition among students of contrasting skills and abilities in playing chess. The study also allowed for the consideration of potential visual-spatial, logical, academic, social competency and life benefits of chess play. Through analysis of interviews, chess simulations, blindfold chess play, and narration of chess lines and sequences, the investigator was able to extract meaning and code schemata into a holistic understanding of the phenomenon of …
Reducing Court-Related Stress Through Court Education: Examining Child Witnesses, Attorneys And Parents, Brittnie Turquoise Watkins
Reducing Court-Related Stress Through Court Education: Examining Child Witnesses, Attorneys And Parents, Brittnie Turquoise Watkins
UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones
Court education presents a useful approach to addressing children's stress, anxiety or fear related to testifying. The current study uses a pretest-posttest design to evaluate whether Kids' Court School (KCS), a court education program in Clark County, Nevada, reduces court-related stress in child witnesses. In addition, attorneys' and parents' concerns related to various elements of the child's impending testimony, are evaluated. The measure used to assess stress was the Court-Related Stress Scale (CRSS), a 10-item Likert scale adapted from the Stressfulness of Life Scale. In addition, open-ended questions were posed at the time of posttest. The CRSS was administered to …
Differences Between Students With And Without Adhd On Task Vigilance Under Conditions Of Distraction, Peter Ross, Justus Randolph
Differences Between Students With And Without Adhd On Task Vigilance Under Conditions Of Distraction, Peter Ross, Justus Randolph
Journal of Educational Research and Practice
Distraction is a typical component of any classroom environment. For effective instruction and learning to take place, it is critical for students to eventually return to task and maintain task vigilance (i.e., returning to the task at hand) when a distraction occurs. Students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), by definition, are more distractible than students without ADHD. However, studies showing specific variability of task vigilance between students with and without ADHD are limited. This correlational study examined the differences in distractibility on task vigilance between students with and without ADHD under conditions of distraction. Two groups of participants, ranging …
Supporting Positive Parent-Toddler Relationships And Reducing Toddler Tantrums: Evaluation Of Pcat-E, Tara M. Sjuts
Supporting Positive Parent-Toddler Relationships And Reducing Toddler Tantrums: Evaluation Of Pcat-E, Tara M. Sjuts
College of Education and Human Sciences: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research
At the most fundamental level, a positive parent-child relationship is the foundation of child success. However, the toddler period may present difficulties for the parent-child relationship. As toddlers explore their autonomy, they challenge parents with noncompliance and temper tantrums, which may be difficult for the parent-child relationship. This study examined the impact of an extension of Parent-Child Attunement Therapy (Parent Child Attunement Therapy – Enhanced; PCAT-E) on parenting behaviors, toddler tantrum behaviors, and the parent-toddler relationship. This extension featured eight individual didactic and coaching sessions with parent-child dyads focused on teaching positive parenting skills, effective commands, and emotion language modeling. …
Mexican American Adolescents’ Gender Role Attitude Development: The Role Of Adolescents’ Gender And Nativity And Parents’ Gender Role Attitudes, Kimberly A. Updegraff, Susan M. Mchale, Katharine H. Zeiders, Adriana J. Umana-Taylor, Norma J. Perez-Brena, Lorey A. Wheeler, Sue A. Rodriguez De Jesus
Mexican American Adolescents’ Gender Role Attitude Development: The Role Of Adolescents’ Gender And Nativity And Parents’ Gender Role Attitudes, Kimberly A. Updegraff, Susan M. Mchale, Katharine H. Zeiders, Adriana J. Umana-Taylor, Norma J. Perez-Brena, Lorey A. Wheeler, Sue A. Rodriguez De Jesus
Nebraska Center for Research on Children, Youth, Families, and Schools: Faculty Publications
Gender development has long term implications for education and career endeavors and family formation behaviors, but we know very little about the role of sociocultural factors in developmental and individual differences. In this study, we investigated one domain of gender development, gender role attitudes, in Mexican American adolescents (N = 246; 51% female), using four phases of longitudinal data across eight years. Data were collected when adolescents averaged 12.51 years (SD = 0.58), 14.64 years (SD = 0.59), 17.72 years (SD = 0.57), and 19.60 years of age (SD = 0.66). Mothers’ and fathers’ gender …
Mexican-Origin Parents’ Latent Occupational Profiles: Associations With Parent-Youth Relationships And Youth Aspirations, Lorey A. Wheeler, Kimberly A. Updegraff, Adriana Umana-Taylor, Jenn-Yun Tein
Mexican-Origin Parents’ Latent Occupational Profiles: Associations With Parent-Youth Relationships And Youth Aspirations, Lorey A. Wheeler, Kimberly A. Updegraff, Adriana Umana-Taylor, Jenn-Yun Tein
Nebraska Center for Research on Children, Youth, Families, and Schools: Faculty Publications
This study utilized an ecological, person-centered approach to identify subgroups of families who had similar profiles across multiple dimensions of Mexican-origin mothers’ and fathers’ occupational characteristics (i.e., self-direction, hazardous conditions, physical activity) and to relate these subgroups to families’ sociocultural characteristics and youth adjustment. The study included 160 dual-earner Mexican-origin families from the urban Southwest. Mothers’ and fathers’ objective work characteristics and families’ sociocultural characteristics were assessed when youth were in early to middle adolescence; adjustment was assessed during late adolescence and early adulthood for two offspring in each family. A latent profile analysis identified 3 profiles that evidenced distinct …
Teacher Support Mediates Concurrent And Longitudinal Associations Between Temperament And Mild Depressive Symptoms In Sixth Grade, Kathleen Moritz Rudasill, Patrick Pössel, Stephanie Winkeljohn Black, Kate Niehaus
Teacher Support Mediates Concurrent And Longitudinal Associations Between Temperament And Mild Depressive Symptoms In Sixth Grade, Kathleen Moritz Rudasill, Patrick Pössel, Stephanie Winkeljohn Black, Kate Niehaus
Department of Educational Psychology: Faculty Publications
The combination of changes occurring at the transition to middle school may be a catalyst for the onset of depressive symptoms, yet teacher support at this transition is protective. Research points to certain temperamental traits as risk factors for developing depressive symptoms. This study examines student reports of teacher support and teacher reports of student–teacher relationship (STR) quality as mediators of associations between child temperament (i.e. negative emotionality at age 4½ : and emotional reactivity in elementary grades) and depressive symptoms in sixth grade. Results indicate (a) negative emotionality predicted emotional reactivity and depressive symptoms; (b) emotional reactivity predicted depressive …
Children’S Attitudes Towards Peers With Disabilities: Associations With Personal And Parental Factors, Soo-Young Hong, Kyong-Ah Kwon, Hyun-Joo Jeon
Children’S Attitudes Towards Peers With Disabilities: Associations With Personal And Parental Factors, Soo-Young Hong, Kyong-Ah Kwon, Hyun-Joo Jeon
Nebraska Center for Research on Children, Youth, Families, and Schools: Faculty Publications
The purpose of this study was to investigate the following: (i) associations among children’s prior contact with people with disabilities and the three dimensions of children’s attitudes towards people with disabilities: children’s understanding of and their feelings about people with disabilities and their behavioral intentions to make inclusion decisions; (ii) the relation between children’s behavioral intentions to make inclusion decisions and the demands of activity contexts and the types of disabilities; and (iii) the association between parents’ attitudes and children’s attitudes. Participants included 94 typically developing four- and five-year-old preschoolers. Children’s understanding of disabilities and their prior contact with people …
Program Evaluation Of Behavior Management Training For Preschool Teachers: Child Outcomes, Erika Nicole Christianson
Program Evaluation Of Behavior Management Training For Preschool Teachers: Child Outcomes, Erika Nicole Christianson
Masters Theses & Specialist Projects
Due to the immense challenges faced by young children who exhibit emotion regulation problems, prevention programs have been designed to train teachers on strategies useful for improving classroom behavior. The current study examines the effects of a prevention program implemented in a blended Head Start/daycare setting and evaluates the outcomes of the training on children’s cognitive/preliteracy skills, selfregulation, and social competence in the fall and spring following teacher training. The intervention group (Western Kentucky University Child Care Center) and control group (Bryant Way Child Care Center) were part of a blended Head Start/child care preschool program. Children’s self-regulation, social competence, …
Hospital To School Transitions For Children: A Multiple Case Study Of Family Experiences, Rhiannon Yvonne Rager
Hospital To School Transitions For Children: A Multiple Case Study Of Family Experiences, Rhiannon Yvonne Rager
UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones
Children with emotional and behavioral disorders often present with significant impairments in social, emotional, and academic functioning. For those with the most severe impairments, hospitalization is an essential intervention. Prior to releasing children from the hospital, a discharge plan is typically created in order to facilitate successful transition from the hospital setting. Ideally, these plans set the stage for post-hospitalization supports by outlining a course of action for caregivers and coordinating services, with the ultimate goal of helping children maintain gains and reducing recidivism. Research suggests that current practices do not incorporate educational needs and supports into discharge plans. Although …
Examining The Relationships Between Internalizing And Externalizing Problems And Academic Achievement, Lara Elizabeth Conrad
Examining The Relationships Between Internalizing And Externalizing Problems And Academic Achievement, Lara Elizabeth Conrad
UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones
The relationship between internalizing and externalizing problems and academic achievement for children and adolescents has been inconclusive. Particularly the relationship between the Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition (BASC-2) reports of internalizing and externalizing problems and academic performance on the Woodcock-Johnson, Tests of Achievement, Third Edition (WJ-III:ACH). The current study examined the self and parent reports of internalizing and externalizing problems as measured by the BASC-2 and the relationship with academic skills as measured by the WJ-III:ACH. The referral source (private practice or school setting) was evaluated for severity of presenting internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Secondary data analysis was …
Bullying Prevalence In Mississippi: A Comparison Of Urban And Rural Schools, Valarie Mccaskill
Bullying Prevalence In Mississippi: A Comparison Of Urban And Rural Schools, Valarie Mccaskill
Doctoral Dissertations and Projects
This study examines the prevalence of bullying in urban and rural schools in Mississippi. Students at eight middle schools completed the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire to identify bullies and bully victims. The results of the study showed that approximately 50% of students in both urban and rural schools were identified as being bullied once or more during the current school term. There was no significant difference in the prevalence of bullying at urban and rural schools based on students who attended the eight middle schools who participated in the study. However, there was a significant difference in the prevalence of bullying …
Bullying : What You Need To Know, Hela Erez
Bullying : What You Need To Know, Hela Erez
Graduate Student Independent Studies
Examines the bullying phenomenon and the different factors it involves. Statistics of bullying provide additional information and show the severity and complexity of bullying. This research is intended to help educators and parents oversee the origins from which the bullying phenomenon emerges and consequentially, help resolve bullying among school age children.