Statistics and Probability Commons^™

Analysis Of Measles Vaccination Refusal On Social Media (Facebook) Among Anti-Vaccine Communities In Indonesia, Dwi Meilani, Evi Martha, Hadi Pratomo, Indah Jamiatun Hasanah, Somporn Rungreangkulkij

Kesmas

Measles is one of the main causes of global mortality in the under-fives. The existence of groups that reject immunization caused a decrease in immunization coverage. Anti-vaccine messages are widely delivered on social media. Identification of vaccine rejection behavior can be used as the basis to formulate effective program strategies. The design of this study used rapid assessment procedures (RAP). The informants were from two anti-vaccine communities in the Facebook group. In-depth interviews and observations were done for data collection, and data analysis was performed using the Framework Method. The results found that determinants, such as knowledge, beliefs in health …

Parity And Marital Status As Factors Influencing Contraceptive Use Among Adolescents In Indonesia, Anni Fithriyatul Mas'udah, Terry Yr Pristya, Sulistyo Andarmoyo

Kesmas

Adolescent pregnancy has a higher health risk compared to adult pregnancy. One approach to control pregnancy among adolescents is through contraceptive use. The data on contraceptive use has increased in 2018 and is still controversial among adolescents. Thus, it is necessary to determine the factors encou - rag ing the use of contraceptives among adolescents. This study aimed to determine the relation of parity and marital status on contraceptive use among adolescents. This quantitative study used a cross-sectional design. The population of this study was adolescents aged 15–19 years in Indonesia. The total sample of 936 adolescents was selected from …

Low Knowledge And Unawareness Of The Health Promotion As The Determinant Factors In Non-Compliance To The Mass Drug Administration Program, Nissa Noor Annashr, Icca Stella Amalia, Hoa Thi Phuong Dinh

Kesmas

From the total population of the community in Kuningan District, 78.61% were taking filariasis drugs in the Mass Drug Administration (MDA) program in 2017. Cilimus Subdistrict became a filariasis-endemic area in Kuningan with 72.39% of the MDA program coverage in 2017 (government target >86%). The purpose of this study was to analyze the determinant factors of compliance with the MDA program. The study was an analytical study with a cross-sectional design and conducted from May to June 2018. The sample of 106 people was taken from the population living in Cilimus Subdistrict, Kuningan District, using a simple random sampling technique. …

Patterns And Determinants Of Open Defecation Among Urban People, Vera Yulyani, Christin Angelina Febriani, Shaharuddin Ms, Dessy Hermawan

Kesmas

At the present time, an estimated of 673 million people defecate in the open space, not in private. Indonesia is a densely populated country with a lot of open defecation (OD) both in urban (37%) and rural areas (43%). Tanjung Karang Pusat Subdistrict is an area in Bandar Lampung City with the highest percentage of OD practice (45%). This study aimed to explore and explain the patterns and determinants of OD among urban people in the Tanjung Karang Pusat Subdistrict in- volving 377 respondents for quantitative analysis. Quantitative data were analyzed using the chi square and regression analysis. After controlling …

Risk Perception For Developing Erectile Dysfunction Among Malaysian Men With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, Anuar Mohamad, Hizlinda Tohid, Saharuddin Ahmad, Seng Fah Tong, Mahadir Ahmad

Kesmas

Risk perception for developing erectile dysfunction (ED) is an appreciation of the susceptibility to having ED and its severity. This study examined this risk perception and its associated factors among 180 men with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), who claimed not to have ED. This cross sectional study was conducted at a public health clinic using a validated self-administered questionnaire, which assessed participant characteristics, perceived susceptibility to developing ED, perceived severity of ED, and knowledge on risk factors for ED. About 71.1% had an inaccurate perception of susceptibility to developing ED and their perception on its severity was moderate (median …

Determinants Of Exclusive Breastfeeding Practices Of Female Healthcare Workers In Jakarta, Indonesia, Siti Rapingah, Nova Muhani, Besral Besral, Poppy Yuniar

Kesmas

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommended that mothers worldwide exclusively breastfeed their infants for the child's first six months to achieve optimal growth, development, and health. Indonesia had not fulfilled the global standard of breastfeeding rate so that there was low coverage of exclusive breastfeeding in East Jakarta, especially for female healthcare workers. This study aimed to determine the factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding practices of healthcare workers. This was a quantitative study using a cross-sectional design. The recruited sample consisted of 85 female public health center workers with infants aged 6-24 months. Data were collected using self-administered questionnaires. Logistic …

Evaluation Of Added Sugar And Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption By University Students, Çağdaş Salih Meric, Nurcan Yabanci Ayhan, Hacı Ömer Yilmaz

Kesmas

Today, increased intake of sugar and sugar-sweetened beverages is seen today as an important factor in the growing prevalence of chronic diseases, such as obesity, obesity-related diabetes, and coronary heart diseases. This study involved 214 university students from the Department of Nutrition and Dietetics of Ankara University, Faculty of Health Science, which was intended to evaluate the consumption of sugar and sugar-sweetened beverages. The frequency of student consumption of beverages and the quantities and amounts of sugar taken with beverages were questioned. The average total amount of sugar added to drinks by the students was 4.69 ± 6.35 gram, while …

Maternal Dietary Quality, Inflammatory Potential And Childhood Adiposity: An Individual Participant Data Pooled Analysis Of Seven European Cohorts In The Alphabet Consortium, Ling-Wei Chen, Adrien M. Aubert, Nitin Shivappa, Jonathan Y. Bernard, Sara M. Mensink-Bout, Aisling A. Geraghty, John Mehegan, Matthew Suderman, Kinga Polanska, Wojciech Hanke, Agnieszka Jankowska, Caroline L. Relton, Sarah R. Crozier, Nicholas C. Harvey, Cyrus Cooper, Mark Hanson, Keith M. Godfrey, Romy Gaillard, Liesbeth Duijts, Barbara Heude, James Hébert Scd, Fionnuala M. Mcauliffe, Cecily Kelleher, Catherine M. Phillips

Faculty Publications

Background

Mounting evidence suggests that maternal diet influences pregnancy and birth outcomes, but its contribution to the global epidemic of childhood obesity has not as yet been definitively characterized. We investigated whether maternal whole diet quality and inflammatory potential influence childhood adiposity.

Methods

We harmonized and pooled individual participant data from 16,295 mother-child pairs in seven European birth cohorts. Maternal pre-, early-, late-, and whole-pregnancy (any time during pregnancy) dietary quality and inflammatory potential assessed with the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) score and the energy-adjusted Dietary Inflammatory Index (E-DII™) score, respectively. Primary outcome was childhood overweight and obesity …

Whole-Exome Sequencing And Hipsc Cardiomyocyte Models Identify Myrip, Trappc11, And Slc27a6 Of Potential Importance To Left Ventricular Hypertrophy In An African Ancestry Population, Marguerite R. Irvin, Praful Aggarwal, Steven A. Claas, Lisa De Las Fuentes, Anh N. Do, C. Charles Gu, Andrea Matter, Benjamin S. Olson, Amit Patki, Karen Schwander, Joshua D. Smith, Vinodh Srinivasasainagendra, Hemant K. Tiwari, Amy J. Turner, Deborah A. Nickerson, Dabeeru C. Rao, Ulrich Broeckel, Donna K. Arnett

Epidemiology and Environmental Health Faculty Publications

Background: Indices of left ventricular (LV) structure and geometry represent useful intermediate phenotypes related to LV hypertrophy (LVH), a predictor of cardiovascular (CV) disease (CVD) outcomes.

Methods and Results: We conducted an exome-wide association study of LV mass (LVM) adjusted to height^2.7, LV internal diastolic dimension (LVIDD), and relative wall thickness (RWT) among 1,364 participants of African ancestry (AAs) in the Hypertension Genetic Epidemiology Network (HyperGEN). Both single-variant and gene-based sequence kernel association tests were performed to examine whether common and rare coding variants contribute to variation in echocardiographic traits in AAs. We then used a data-driven …

Dietary Quality And Dietary Inflammatory Potential During Pregnancy And Offspring Emotional And Behavioral Symptoms In Childhood: An Individual Participant Data Meta-Analysis Of Four European Cohorts, Kinga Polanska, Pawel Kaluzny, Adrien M. Aubert, Liesbeth Duijts, Hanan El Marroun, Wojciech Hanke, James R. Hébert, Barbara Heude, Agnieszka Jankowska, Giulia Mancano, Sara M. Mensink-Bout, Caroline Relton, Nitin Shivappa Mbbs, Mph, Ph.D., Matthew Suderman, Elzbieta Trafalska, Ewelina Wesolowska, Raquel Garcia-Esteban, Mònica Guxens, Maribel Casas, Catherine M. Phillips

Faculty Publications

Background

The impact of maternal diet during pregnancy on child neurodevelopment is of public health and clinical relevance. We evaluated the associations of dietary quality based on the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) score and dietary inflammatory potential based on the energy-adjusted Dietary Inflammatory Index (E-DII) score during pregnancy with emotional and behavioral symptoms of offspring at 7 to 10 years of age.

Methods

Individual participant data for 11,870 mother–child pairs from four European cohorts participating in the ALPHABET project were analyzed. Maternal antenatal DASH and E-DII scores were generated from self-completed food frequency questionnaires. Symptoms of depression …

Measurement Matters: Changing Penalty Calculations Under The Hospital Acquired Condition Reduction Program (Hacrp) Cost Hospitals Millions, Olga A. Vsevolozhskaya, Karina C. Manz, Pierre M. Zephyr, Teresa M. Waters

Biostatistics Faculty Publications

BACKGROUND: Since October 2014, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services has penalized 25% of U.S. hospitals with the highest rates of hospital-acquired conditions under the Hospital Acquired Conditions Reduction Program (HACRP). While early evaluations of the HACRP program reported cumulative reductions in hospital-acquired conditions, more recent studies have not found a clear association between receipt of the HACRP penalty and hospital quality of care. We posit that some of this disconnect may be driven by frequent scoring updates. The sensitivity of the HACRP penalties to updates in the program's scoring methodology has not been independently evaluated.

METHODS: We used …

The Intersection Of Rural Residence And Minority Race/Ethnicity In Cancer Disparities In The United States, Whitney Zahnd, Cathryn Murphy, Marie Knoll, Gabriel A. Benavidez, Kelsey R. Day, Radhika Ranganathan, Parthenia Luke, Anja Zgodic, Kewei Shi, Melinda A. Merrell, Elizabeth L. Crouch, Heather M. Brandt, Jan Eberth

Faculty Publications

One in every twenty-five persons in America is a racial/ethnic minority who lives in a rural area. Our objective was to summarize how racism and, subsequently, the social determinants of health disproportionately affect rural racial/ethnic minority populations, provide a review of the cancer disparities experienced by rural racial/ethnic minority groups, and recommend policy, research, and intervention approaches to reduce these disparities. We found that rural Black and American Indian/Alaska Native populations experience greater poverty and lack of access to care, which expose them to greater risk of developing cancer and experiencing poorer cancer outcomes in treatment and ultimately survival. There …

A Cluster-Based Approach For Identifying Prognostic Microrna Signatures In Digestive System Cancers, Jun Zhou, Xiang Cui, Feifei Xiao, Guoshuai Cai

Faculty Publications

Cancer remains the second leading cause of death all over the world. Aberrant expression of miRNA has shown diagnostic and prognostic value in many kinds of cancer. This study aims to provide a novel strategy to identify reliable miRNA signatures and develop improved cancer prognostic models from reported cancer-associated miRNAs. We proposed a new cluster-based approach to identify distinct cluster(s) of cancers and corresponding miRNAs. Further, with samples from TCGA and other independent studies, we identified prognostic markers and validated their prognostic value in prediction models. We also performed KEGG pathway analysis to investigate the functions of miRNAs associated with …

Regression Analyses Assessing The Impact Of Environmental Factors On Covid-19 Transmission And Mortality, El Hussain Shamsa, Kezhong Zhang

Medical Student Research Symposium

No abstract provided.

Neighborhood Characteristics And The Mental Health Of Caregivers Cohabiting With Care Recipients Diagnosed With Alzheimer’S Disease, Dana M. Alhasan, Jana A. Hirsch, Chandra L. Jackson, Margaret Chandlee Miller, Bo Cai Ph.D., Matthew C. Lohman Ph.D.

Faculty Publications

While studies have documented the influence of caregiver and care recipient factors on caregiver health, it is important to address the potential impact of neighborhood contexts. This study estimated the cross-sectional associations between neighborhood characteristics and mental health among caregivers cohabiting with Alzheimer’s disease care recipients that were experiencing severe or non-severe neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPSs) (e.g., aggression/anxiety). We obtained data collected in 2010 on caregivers and care recipients (n

While studies have documented the influence of caregiver and care recipient factors on caregiver health, it is important to address the potential impact of neighborhood contexts. This study estimated the cross-sectional …

Memory-Related Frontal Brainwaves Predict Transition To Mild Cognitive Impairment In Healthy Older Individuals Five Years Before Diagnosis, Yang Jiang, Juan Li, Frederick A. Schmitt, Gregory A. Jicha, Nancy B. Munro, Xiaopeng Zhao, Charles D. Smith, Richard J. Kryscio, Erin L. Abner

Behavioral Science Faculty Publications

BACKGROUND: Early prognosis of high-risk older adults for amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI), using noninvasive and sensitive neuromarkers, is key for early prevention of Alzheimer's disease. We have developed individualized measures in electrophysiological brain signals during working memory that distinguish patients with aMCI from age-matched cognitively intact older individuals.

OBJECTIVE: Here we test longitudinally the prognosis of the baseline neuromarkers for aMCI risk. We hypothesized that the older individuals diagnosed with incident aMCI already have aMCI-like brain signatures years before diagnosis.

METHODS: Electroencephalogram (EEG) and memory performance were recorded during a working memory task at baseline. The individualized baseline neuromarkers, …

Emergency Department Use Following Incentives To Provide After-Hours Primary Care: A Retrospective Cohort Study., Michael Hong, Amardeep Thind, Gregory S Zaric, Sisira Sarma

Epidemiology and Biostatistics Publications

BACKGROUND: Access to primary care outside of regular working hours is limited in many countries. This study investigates the relation between the after-hours premium, an incentive for primary care physicians to provide services after hours, and less-urgent visits to the emergency department in Ontario, Canada.

METHODS: We analyzed a retrospective cohort of a random sample of Ontario residents from April 2002 to March 2006, and a subcohort of patients followed from April 2005 to March 2016. We linked patient and primary care physician data with emergency department visit data. We used fixed-effects regression models to analyze the association between the …

Integrated Profiling Identifies Itgb3bp As Prognostic Biomarker For Hepatocellular Carcinoma, Qiuli Liang, Chao Tan, Feifei Xiao, Fuqiang Yin, Meiliang Liu, Lei Lei, Liuyu Wu, Yu Yang, Jennifer Hui Juan Tan, Shun Liu, Xiaoyun Zeng

Faculty Publications

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a highly malignant tumor. In this study, we sought to identify a novel biomarker for HCC by analyzing transcriptome and clinical data. The R software was used to analyze the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the datasets GSE74656 and GSE84598 downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database, followed by a functional annotation. A total of 138 shared DEGs were screened from two datasets. They were mainly enriched in the “Metabolic pathways” pathway (Padj = 8.21E-08) and involved in the carboxylic acid metabolic process (Padj = 0.0004). The top 10 hub genes were found by protein-protein interaction …

Sars-Cov-2 Pandemic Analytical Overview With Machine Learning Predictability, Anthony Tanaydin, Jingchen Liang, Daniel W. Engels

SMU Data Science Review

Understanding diagnostic tests and examining important features of novel coronavirus (COVID-19) infection are essential steps for controlling the current pandemic of 2020. In this paper, we study the relationship between clinical diagnosis and analytical features of patient blood panels from the US, Mexico, and Brazil. Our analysis confirms that among adults, the risk of severe illness from COVID-19 increases with pre-existing conditions such as diabetes and immunosuppression. Although more than eight months into pandemic, more data have become available to indicate that more young adults were getting infected. In addition, we expand on the definition of COVID-19 test and discuss …

Covid-19 Pandemic In Brazil: Clinical Manifestation And Effect Of Comorbidities On Outcomes Of Hospitalized Sari Cases, Mario Keko, Karl E. Peace

Biostatistics, Epidemiology & Environmental Health Sciences: Faculty Publications

Hospitalized SARI cases of 2020 reported to the Ministry of Health of Brazil through the SIVEP Gripe system are subject to our analysis. They are classified as COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 and clinical manifestations and comorbidities are reported for each group. The time trend in the number of cases reported in 2020 is compared to the previous year and the performance of the PCR test is explored in each group. The proportion of death is reported among different subgroups of the patients by epidemiological week. Logistic and Poisson regression models are used to check the effect of comorbidities on clinical outcomes.

Improving Evidence-Based Grouping Of Transitional Care Strategies In Hospital Implementation Using Statistical Tools And Expert Review, Jing Li, Gaixin Du, Jessica Miller Clouser, Arnold J. Stromberg, Glen Mays, Joann Sorra, Jane Brock, Terry Davis, Suzanne Mitchell, Huong Q. Nguyen, Mark V. Williams

Center for Health Services Research Faculty Publications

BACKGROUND: As health systems transition to value-based care, improving transitional care (TC) remains a priority. Hospitals implementing evidence-based TC models often adapt them to local contexts. However, limited research has evaluated which groups of TC strategies, or transitional care activities, commonly implemented by hospitals correspond with improved patient outcomes. In order to identify TC strategy groups for evaluation, we applied a data-driven approach informed by literature review and expert opinion.

METHODS: Based on a review of evidence-based TC models and the literature, focus groups with patients and family caregivers identifying what matters most to them during care transitions, and expert …

Time-Varying Insomnia Symptoms And Incidence Of Cognitive Impairment And Dementia Among Older Us Adults, Nicholas V. Resciniti, Valerie Yelverton, Bezawit Eyob Kase, Jiajia Zhang, Matthew C. Lohman

Faculty Publications

There is conflicting evidence regarding the association between insomnia and the onset of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia. This study aimed to evaluate if time-varying insomnia is associated with the development of MCI and dementia. Data from the Health and Retirement Study (n = 13,833) from 2002 to 2014 were used (59.4% female). The Brief Insomnia Questionnaire was used to identify insomnia symptoms which were compiled in an insomnia severity index, ranging from 0 to 4. In analysis, participants’ symptoms could vary from wave-to-wave. Dementia was defined using results from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) global cognitive …

The Risk Of Physical Multimorbidity In People With Psychotic Disorders: A Systematic Review And Meta-Analysis, Myanca Rodrigues, Joshua C. Wiener, Saverio Stranges, Bridget L. Ryan, Kelly K. Anderson

Epidemiology and Biostatistics Publications

Background: The occurrence of multiple co-occurring chronic health conditions, known as multimorbidity, is associated with decreases in quality of life for patients and poses unique challenges for healthcare systems. Since people with psychotic disorders have an excess of physical health conditions compared to the general population, they may also be at a higher risk for multimorbidity. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to quantify the prevalence and excess risk of multimorbidity among people with psychotic disorders, relative to those without psychosis.

Methods: We searched the MEDLINE, EMBASE, and PsycINFO databases, and conducted forward and backward citation tracing of included …

Physician Remuneration Schemes, Psychiatric Hospitalizations And Follow-Up Care: Evidence From Blended Fee-For-Service And Capitation Models., Thyna Vu, Kelly K Anderson, Rose Anne Devlin, Nibene H Somé, Sisira Sarma

Epidemiology and Biostatistics Publications

Psychiatric hospitalizations could be reduced if mental illnesses were detected and treated earlier in the primary care setting, leading to the World Health Organization recommendation that mental health services be integrated into primary care. The mental health services provided in primary care settings may vary based on how physicians are incentivized. Little is known about the link between physician remuneration and psychiatric hospitalizations. We contribute to this literature by studying the relationship between physician remuneration and psychiatric hospitalizations in Canada's most populous province, Ontario. Specifically, we study family physicians (FPs) who switched from blended fee-for-service (FFS) to blended capitation remuneration …

Carbon Dioxide And Particulate Matter Concentration On Hampton Roads Air Quality, Gregory Hubbard

OUR Journal: ODU Undergraduate Research Journal

Hampton Roads has been a maritime crossroads for the last 400 years. Industrialization has impacted the coastal region for the last 250 years. The expansion of the Port of Virginia in 2019 has created dense traffic in the region resulting in impacts to air quality. Two waste products that affect humans are particulate matter and carbon dioxide. Both respective emissions can cause adverse effects on humans, such as asthma, some lung cancers, and other respiratory distress. Scientists and health practitioners are studying the effects of particulate matter on human health. Hampton Roads, in particular, because of its unique location on …

Maternal Proximity To Mountaintop Removal Mining And Birth Defects In Appalachian Kentucky, 1997-2003, Daniel B. Cooper

Theses and Dissertations--Public Health (M.P.H. & Dr.P.H.)

Background: Extraction of coal through mountaintop removal mining (MTR) alters many dimensions of the landscape, and explosive blasts, exposed rock, and coal washing have the potential to pollute air and water with substances known to increase risk of developmental and birth anomalies. Previous research suggests that infants born to mothers living in MTR coal mining counties have higher prevalence of most types of birth defects.

Objectives: This study seeks to examine further the relationship between MTR activity and birth defects by employing individual level exposure estimation through precise satellite data of MTR activity in the Appalachian region and maternal residence …

Investigations Into The Genetics Of Mixed Pathologies In Dementia, Adam Dugan

Theses and Dissertations--Epidemiology and Biostatistics

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an irreversible, progressive brain disorder that leads to a loss of memory and thinking skills. While tremendous progress has been made in our understanding of the genetics underlying AD, currently known genetic variants explain only approximately 30% of the heritable risk of developing AD. One hurdle to AD research is that it can only be definitively diagnosed at autopsy, making cruder, clinic-based diagnoses more common. In recent years, several brain pathologies that mimic AD’s clinical presentation have been identified including brain arteriolosclerosis, hippocampal sclerosis (HS), and, most recently, limbic-predominant age-related TDP-43 encephalopathy (LATE). It has become …

Evaluating The Incidence Of Melanoma And Lung Cancer Of Current And Former Active-Duty U.S. Military Who Were Deployed In Support Of Operation Enduring Freedom And Operation Iraqi Freedom, Brian Kovacic

Theses and Dissertations--Epidemiology and Biostatistics

The incidence of melanoma and lung cancer has been gradually increasing in the United States over the past three decades with the reputed causes due to etiological and environmental exposures, and tobacco usage. There has been concern that melanoma and lung cancer incidence among military personnel may be associated with deployment to environments with intense sun exposure and increased smoking rates due to post-traumatic stress disorder. The aim of this study was to examine associations between deployment in support of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) or Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), from 2001 through 2015, with subsequent melanoma and lung cancer incidence. …

Sexual Behaviors Associated With Online Partner-Seeking Among Men Who Have Sex With Men From Small/Midsized Towns Or Rural Areas In Kentucky, Vira Pravosud

Theses and Dissertations--Epidemiology and Biostatistics

The HIV epidemic remains one of the most significant public health issues in the United States, particularly among men who have sex with men (MSM). New avenues for partner-seeking have emerged over the past three decades, including through the Internet, social media, and geosocial networking applications. Consisting of three cross-sectional studies, this dissertation research aimed to determine associations between the use of various online tools for partner-seeking (hereafter collectively referred to as “apps”) and HIV-related sexual behaviors among 252 young adult MSM residing in small/midsized towns or rural areas in Central Kentucky, a group that has been under-represented in the …

Neither “Post-War” Nor Post-Pregnancy Paranoia: How America’S War On Drugs Continues To Perpetuate Disparate Incarceration Outcomes For Pregnant, Substance-Involved Offenders, Becca S. Zimmerman

Pitzer Senior Theses

This thesis investigates the unique interactions between pregnancy, substance involvement, and race as they relate to the War on Drugs and the hyper-incarceration of women. Using ordinary least square regression analyses and data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ 2016 Survey of Prison Inmates, I examine if (and how) pregnancy status, drug use, race, and their interactions influence two length of incarceration outcomes: sentence length and amount of time spent in jail between arrest and imprisonment. The results collectively indicate that pregnancy decreases length of incarceration outcomes for those offenders who are not substance-involved but not evenhandedly -- benefitting white …