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Articles 1051 - 1080 of 4562
Full-Text Articles in Oceanography and Atmospheric Sciences and Meteorology
Adjusting The Lens Of Invasion Biology To Focus On The Impacts Of Climate-Driven Range Shifts, Piper D. Wallingford, Toni Lyn Morelli, Jenica M. Allen, Evelyn M. Beaury, Dana M. Blumenthal, Bethany A. Bradley, Jeffrey S. Dukes, Regan Early, Emily J. Fusco, Deborah E. Goldberg, Inés Ibáñez, Brittany B. Laginhas, Montserrat Vilà, Cascade J.B. Sorte
Adjusting The Lens Of Invasion Biology To Focus On The Impacts Of Climate-Driven Range Shifts, Piper D. Wallingford, Toni Lyn Morelli, Jenica M. Allen, Evelyn M. Beaury, Dana M. Blumenthal, Bethany A. Bradley, Jeffrey S. Dukes, Regan Early, Emily J. Fusco, Deborah E. Goldberg, Inés Ibáñez, Brittany B. Laginhas, Montserrat Vilà, Cascade J.B. Sorte
United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications
As Earth’s climate rapidly changes, species range shifts are considered key to species persistence. However, some range-shifting species will alter community structure and ecosystem processes. By adapting existing invasion risk assessment frameworks, we can identify characteristics shared with high-impact introductions and thus predict potential impacts. There are fundamental differences between introduced and range-shifting species, primarily shared evolutionary histories between range shifters and their new community. Nevertheless, impacts can occur via analogous mechanisms, such as wide dispersal, community disturbance and low biotic resistance. As ranges shift in response to climate change, we have an opportunity to develop plans to facilitate advantageous …
Earth Observation And Cloud Computing In Support Of Two Sustainable Development Goals For The River Nile Watershed Countries, Wenzhao Li, Hesham El-Askary, Venkat Lakshmi, Thomas Piechota, Daniele Struppa
Earth Observation And Cloud Computing In Support Of Two Sustainable Development Goals For The River Nile Watershed Countries, Wenzhao Li, Hesham El-Askary, Venkat Lakshmi, Thomas Piechota, Daniele Struppa
Mathematics, Physics, and Computer Science Faculty Articles and Research
In September 2015, the members of United Nations adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development with universal applicability of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets. The SDGs are consequential for the development of the countries in the Nile watershed, which are affected by water scarcity and experiencing rapid urbanization associated with population growth. Earth Observation (EO) has become an important tool to monitor the progress and implementation of specific SDG targets through its wide accessibility and global coverage. In addition, the advancement of algorithms and tools deployed in cloud computing platforms provide an equal opportunity to use EO …
Sea Level Rise Vulnerability Analysis Of Mangrove Ecosystems Using Gis, Kayla Caldwell
Sea Level Rise Vulnerability Analysis Of Mangrove Ecosystems Using Gis, Kayla Caldwell
HCNSO Student Theses and Dissertations
Climate change is accelerating beyond what is natural due to excessive emissions from human activities. The sea level has been rising for many years and is currently at a rate of 3.6 mm/yr. Mangroves are known to only keep pace with a sea level rate of less than 1.2 mm/yr. Mangroves are particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels if they are not able to keep pace through vertical sediment accretion or inland migration. To test the vulnerability of the south Florida mangrove ecosystems to sea level rise, this study analyzed changes in the mangrove forest coverage of the Oleta River …
Increased Drought Severity Tracks Warming In The United States’ Largest River Basin, Justin T. Martin, Gregory T. Pederson, Connie A. Woodhouse, Edward R. Cook, Gregory J. Mccabe, Kevin J. Anchukaitis, Erika K. Wise, Patrick J. Erger, Larry Dolan, Marketa Mcguire, Subhrendu Gangopadhyay, Katherine J. Chase, Jeremy S. Litell, Stephen T. Gray, Scott St. George, Jonathan M. Friedman, David J. Sauchyn, Jeannine-Marie St-Jacques, John King
Increased Drought Severity Tracks Warming In The United States’ Largest River Basin, Justin T. Martin, Gregory T. Pederson, Connie A. Woodhouse, Edward R. Cook, Gregory J. Mccabe, Kevin J. Anchukaitis, Erika K. Wise, Patrick J. Erger, Larry Dolan, Marketa Mcguire, Subhrendu Gangopadhyay, Katherine J. Chase, Jeremy S. Litell, Stephen T. Gray, Scott St. George, Jonathan M. Friedman, David J. Sauchyn, Jeannine-Marie St-Jacques, John King
United States Geological Survey: Staff Publications
Across the Upper Missouri River Basin, the recent drought of 2000 to 2010, known as the “turn-of-the-century drought,” was likely more severe than any in the instrumental record including the Dust Bowl drought. However, until now, adequate proxy records needed to better understand this event with regard to long-term variability have been lacking. Here we examine 1,200 y of streamflow from a network of 17 new tree-ring–based reconstructions for gages across the upper Missouri basin and an independent reconstruction of warm-season regional temperature in order to place the recent drought in a long-term climate context. We find that temperature has …
How Can We Change Gut Microbiota For Healthy Lives?, Elizaveta Shmakova
How Can We Change Gut Microbiota For Healthy Lives?, Elizaveta Shmakova
Scientific Communication News
No abstract provided.
Investigating Dorsal Fin Hydrodynamic Function Of The Lemon Shark, Negaprion Brevirostris, Vivian Lynn Turner
Investigating Dorsal Fin Hydrodynamic Function Of The Lemon Shark, Negaprion Brevirostris, Vivian Lynn Turner
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Many sharks are considered highly efficient swimmers. Their swimming efficiency is partially governed by their morphological features such as dorsal fins, which play a role in their hydrodynamics. Most sharks feature two dorsal fins that can vary in size and location over the body. The first dorsal fin has been shown to improve stabilization, maneuverability, and increase thrust production during swimming, whilst the hydrodynamic role of the second dorsal fin is largely unknown. An understanding of the hydrodynamic function of the dorsal fins can be utilized in engineering applications, e.g., to replicate fins on underwater autonomous vehicles to increase energy …
Surveillance Of Microplastic Pollution In Central Virginia Freshwater Ecosystems, Alexandra Reddy
Surveillance Of Microplastic Pollution In Central Virginia Freshwater Ecosystems, Alexandra Reddy
Senior Honors Theses
Aquatic organisms often mistake microplastic particulates (MP) as food and inadvertently ingest the particulates, which can biomagnify through the food chain. While MP ingestion is well-researched in the marine environment, little is known about microplastics in freshwater ecosystems. This project explores MP occurrence in an ecologically significant freshwater invertebrate: crayfish. Crayfish from two Central Virginia streams are collected to identify MP in the digestive tracts and gill filaments, and characterize the MP using analytical chemistry techniques. It was determined that MP were present in the digestive tracts and gill filaments of crayfish collected from both streams, and that MP frequency …
Temporal Transport Dynamics Of The Amazon River Plume Revealed Using Radium Isotope Analysis, Elana J. Ames
Temporal Transport Dynamics Of The Amazon River Plume Revealed Using Radium Isotope Analysis, Elana J. Ames
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
The Amazon River is the largest river by discharge in the world. It carries terrestrial nutrients into the Western Tropical North Atlantic via a buoyant freshwater plume, conveying water hundreds to thousands of kilometers away and driving critical biogeochemical cycles near the coast. Factors controlling the delivery of nutrients offshore by the plume are complicated and interconnected, yet these nutrients impact the foundation of phytoplankton community structures across the entire plume ecosystem. To better understand the temporal dynamics of this massive, highly influential region, we employ naturally occurring radium isotopes (223Ra, 224Ra, 226Ra, and 228Ra) to analyze mixing and transport …
Reconstructing Deep-Ocean Circulation During Cenozoic Climate Transitions From The Marine Sediment Record, Brian Romans
Reconstructing Deep-Ocean Circulation During Cenozoic Climate Transitions From The Marine Sediment Record, Brian Romans
Sustainability Seminar Series
Ocean circulation plays a critical role in the Earth’s climate system through the storage and transfer of heat and carbon dioxide. The North Atlantic and Southern Ocean are of particular interest because these are regions where deep-water components of global circulation develop. Dr. Romans uses the deep-sea sedimentary record to reconstruct past ocean circulation and its relationship to past climatic and tectonic conditions. He integrates information from a broad range of spatial and temporal scales, from seismic-reflection data that reveals regional sedimentation patterns to high resolution records based on quantitative grain-size analysis from cores. Dr. Romans will present research from …
Effects Of Bridge Sites On Freshwater Mussel Community Structure And Density, Holly Rundle
Effects Of Bridge Sites On Freshwater Mussel Community Structure And Density, Holly Rundle
Undergraduate Honors Thesis Projects
Freshwater Mussels (family Unionidae) are one of the most imperiled group of species found in the United States. Construction activities, such as bridges, can affect sedimentation rates and local deposition, as well as the hydrologic flow of the stream. Since mussels are protected in Ohio, surveys must be done prior to bridge construction to determine the impact of the project on mussel resources. Our study used data from survey reports conducted in Ohio from 2013-2019 at bridge sites. We organized the data to determine mussel community structure and density directly underneath bridges compared to away from bridges. We found the …
Weather And Climate Summary And Forecast: April 2020 Report, Gregory V. Jones
Weather And Climate Summary And Forecast: April 2020 Report, Gregory V. Jones
Linfield University Wine Studies Reports
This report provides a summary of the weather and climate forecast for April 2020. It includes forecast information specific to the Pacific Northwest and the western United States, as well as forecast information for other portions of the United States and abroad.
Droughtscape, Spring 2020, National Drought Mitigation Center
Droughtscape, Spring 2020, National Drought Mitigation Center
DroughtScape: Quarterly Newsletter of the National Drought Mitigation Center (2007–2023)
DroughtScape, Spring 2020
Impactos En La Salud Pública Y Desigualdades Frente Al Cambio Climático En América Latina: Una Aproximación Hacia Las Consecuencias Diferenciales De Las Inundaciones Y Olas De Calor En La Cuenca Matanza Riachuelo. / Public Health Impacts And Inequalities In The Face Of Climate Change In Latin America: An Approach Towards The Differential Consequences Of Floods And Heat Waves In The Matanza Riachuelo Watershed., Julia Mettler-Grove
Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection
La relación entre el cambio climático y la salud pública es un tema emergente y crítico para estudiar en la escala local, concretamente en lo que refiere a analizar los efectos producidos por las olas de calor y las inundaciones. Si bien existe un campo de investigación creciente sobre el tema, son pocos los trabajos que ahondan en la conexión con la salud pública, un elemento central para pensar en la gestión del cambio climático en las ciudades. Esto es precisamente lo que se propone hacer la presente investigación, tomando como caso de estudio la cuenca más urbanizada e industrializada …
Surviving Under The Reign Of El Niño Southern Oscillation: An Analysis Of The Effects Of Extreme El Niño Events On The Oceanographic And Biological Environment Of The Galápagos Islands, Ava Mcilvaine
Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection
El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is commonly known as the atmospheric and oceanographic powerhouse of the Southern Pacific Ocean. From phytoplankton to apex predators, ENSO controls the stability of species’ populations within this biodiverse ocean environment. El Niño’s 9-15 month alteration of the heat storage in the tropical Pacific drastically shifts the temperature, nutrient, and circulation gradient its marine life is accustomed to. A single degree change in the ocean’s surface layer temperature can have large consequences for marine species, and El Niño is commonly associated with Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies (SSTAs) between 2°- 6° Celsius. The potential danger El …
Climate Change Effects On Volcanoes In The Tropics: A Review Of The Deglaciation Of Antisana And Its Effects On Subsequent Water Streams And Rivers Over 20 Years, Callie C. Rominger
Climate Change Effects On Volcanoes In The Tropics: A Review Of The Deglaciation Of Antisana And Its Effects On Subsequent Water Streams And Rivers Over 20 Years, Callie C. Rominger
Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection
Located in the Northern end of Ecuador lies the stunning glacier of Antisana which attracts many tourists and whose runoff provides a significant amount of water supply for Quito. Climate change is posing threats to many ecosystems world wide but will have a more substantial impact on the volcanoes in the tropics because they do not have a seasonally altered climate. Small changes in the air temperature can have larger impacts on these areas that are adapted to constant temperatures with seasonal precipitation changes. Climate change, in recent years, had caused an increase in the glacial retreat of the Antisana …
If Watersheds Spoke: A Condition Analysis Of The Rio Tomebamba Watershed In Southern Ecuador Using Gis Analysis, Lenka G. Doskocil
If Watersheds Spoke: A Condition Analysis Of The Rio Tomebamba Watershed In Southern Ecuador Using Gis Analysis, Lenka G. Doskocil
Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection
Understanding processes and ecological threats occurring at the watershed level scale composes a critical piece of water resource conservation and management. This proves doubly true in areas such as the Ecuadorian highlands where water resources depend heavily on the hydrologic regulation capacities of páramo soils. This study examined watershed condition of the Rio Tomebamba watershed and existing habitat for Metallura baroni and Chibchanomys orcesi, two highly endemic species, within its boundaries. Watershed condition was determined based on a simple index that considered nine indicators of watershed health—converted land, impacted riparian zones, impermeable surfaces, water quality, fluvial habitat condition, riparian vegetation …
Macroinvertebrate Community And Temperature Changes In A Michigan Stream, Nyika Campbell
Macroinvertebrate Community And Temperature Changes In A Michigan Stream, Nyika Campbell
Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection
As the climate warms, global biodiversity is plummeting and extinction rates are rising (Jenkins, 2003). Freshwater ecosystems specifically are experiencing huge losses in diversity (Jenkins, 2003; Ormerod et al., 2010; Collier et al., 2016). Conservation of invertebrates is particularly urgent because they are foundational to the trophic systems in streams and lakes, comprising 95% of all species on earth (Titley et al., 2017), and over 60% of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems (Collier et al., 2016). Through analysis of both my own field measurements and historical data I seek to gain a preliminary understanding of temperature and macroinvertebrate community changes that …
Conservation Efforts Concerning Native Bee Species Of Michigan, Thomas Hellman
Conservation Efforts Concerning Native Bee Species Of Michigan, Thomas Hellman
Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection
Bee species all over the world are declining at concerning rates. However, it is good to see the public rallying behind the “save the bees!” movement even though most efforts from this movement have been on the conservation of the European honeybees. This is because most people often associate the honeybee, which is only one of 20,000 known bee species in the world, to all other bees. Therefore, conservation efforts should be broadened and aimed towards the many native bee species that can be found locally in North America. In the state of Michigan, there are over 450 species, and …
Crude Intentions: Evaluating The Growing Risks Of Arctic Alaskan Oil Production, Eliot Stein
Crude Intentions: Evaluating The Growing Risks Of Arctic Alaskan Oil Production, Eliot Stein
Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection
The discovery of oil on Alaska’s North Slope in the 1920s began a century of fossil fuel exploration, development, and production in the Arctic region. Alaska became integral to the nation’s growing energy dominance. However, since 1988, oil production on the North Slope has been in steady decline. In 2015, Shell, followed by several other oil majors, terminated their Arctic Alaska operations. This past year, BP made waves by ending six decades of operations in Alaska. Most recently, five of the six major U.S. banks announced they would no longer finance Arctic oil and gas projects. This paper analyzes these …
La Inclusión De La Mujer Indígena Y El Conocimiento En La Conservación Biológica En El Perú, Ivyanna Colon-Greider
La Inclusión De La Mujer Indígena Y El Conocimiento En La Conservación Biológica En El Perú, Ivyanna Colon-Greider
Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection
El Perú es uno de los países más biodiversos en el mundo. Sin embargo, esta diversidad biológica está amenazada por el cambio climático. Para poder combatir este fenómeno, tenemos que incluir la mujer y sus saberes en la toma de decisiones sobre el manejo conservatorio de la biodiversidad. La meta a través de este estudio es presentar el estado actual del medioambiente y la mujer indígena, mostrar las vinculaciones entre el rol de la mujer indígena y sus saberes en la conservación de la diversidad biológica en Perú y hacer un plan multifacético que reconoce los tres temas con una …
La Relación Entre Cambio Climático Y Migración En Los Andes De Perú: Los Q’Ero, Taquile Y La Cordillera Blanca, Sam Hosmer-Quint
La Relación Entre Cambio Climático Y Migración En Los Andes De Perú: Los Q’Ero, Taquile Y La Cordillera Blanca, Sam Hosmer-Quint
Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection
El cambio climático es uno de los problemas más grandes en el mundo. Los afectos de los cambios serán más graves para las personas más pobres y vulnerables. Perú es reconocido como uno de los países más vulnerables en el mundo, a causa de la presencia de glaciares tropicales, las cual son muy vulnerables a la desglaciación. Los efectos de cambio climático incluyen, entre otras cosas; el cambio de la temporada de lluvias y sequias, un aumento de la temperatura ambiental, inundaciones y tormentas severas. Todos estos factores hacen del cambio climático un riesgo para mucha gente y además, tiene …
Climate Change And Migration In Madagascar: Investigating The Impacts On People, Ecosystems, And Natural Resources, Eloise Parish Mueller
Climate Change And Migration In Madagascar: Investigating The Impacts On People, Ecosystems, And Natural Resources, Eloise Parish Mueller
Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection
The principle objective of this study was to determine the impacts of migration caused or influenced by climate change on people and ecosystems in Madagascar. The specific objectives were 1.) to investigate the impacts of internal migration in Madagascar, particularly movements of people which are related to climate change, on migrants, established communities and ecosystems in regions they relocate to, and natural resources and 2.) to investigate possible solutions to social and environmental challenges resulting from migration in the country. While researching, I came to more fully appreciate the complexities of the relationships between climate, migration, and environmental and social …
Innovative Protection And Conservation Of Coral Reefs In Madagascar, Meghan Parker
Innovative Protection And Conservation Of Coral Reefs In Madagascar, Meghan Parker
Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection
Madagascar is home to approximately 3,450 kilometers of coral reefs, including some of the most biodiverse and valuable marine ecosystems in the Indian Ocean (Webster 2002). This online research project investigates the status of Madagascar’s coral reefs separated by region, threats that are facing the reefs and community-based solutions to protect and conserve the reefs. Conclusions of this online research suggest that most coral reefs in Madagascar are in relatively good health, although looming threats exist from overfishing, increased coastal populations, tourism, and warming waters. Community-based solutions are abundant and have proven effective, and can be implemented nation-wide, personalized to …
The Role Of Island-Marsh Couplings In The Long-Term Sustainability Barrier Islands In The Face Of Accelerated Sea-Level Rise, Christopher Hein
The Role Of Island-Marsh Couplings In The Long-Term Sustainability Barrier Islands In The Face Of Accelerated Sea-Level Rise, Christopher Hein
Sustainability Seminar Series
Barrier islands are one of the most ubiquitous features of the coast . . . at least here along the US East Coast, which accounts for >10% of the world’s barrier islands. Little more than large, partially vegetated, subaerial sand bars, barrier island provide for recreation, ecosystem services, and protection of mainland communities from storm impacts. They are also some of the most dynamic features on earth, constantly changing in the face of waves, tides, wind, and currents. With examples from northern Massachusetts and the Virginia Eastern Shore, this talk will focus on the long-term sustainability of barrier islands, and …
Changes In Atmospheric, Meteorological, And Ocean Parameters Associated With The 12 January 2020 Taal Volcanic Eruption, Feng Jing, Akshansa Chauhan, Ramesh P. Singh, Prasanjit Dash
Changes In Atmospheric, Meteorological, And Ocean Parameters Associated With The 12 January 2020 Taal Volcanic Eruption, Feng Jing, Akshansa Chauhan, Ramesh P. Singh, Prasanjit Dash
Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Sciences Faculty Articles and Research
The Taal volcano erupted on 12 January 2020, the first time since 1977. About 35 mild earthquakes (magnitude greater than 4.0) were observed on 12 January 2020 induced from the eruption. In the present paper, we analyzed optical properties of volcanic aerosols, volcanic gas emission, ocean parameters using multi-satellite sensors, namely, MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer), AIRS (Atmospheric Infrared Sounder), OMI (Ozone Monitoring Instrument), TROPOMI (TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument) and ground observations, namely, Argo, and AERONET (AErosol RObotic NETwork) data. Our detailed analysis shows pronounced changes in all the parameters, which mainly occurred in the western and south-western regions because the …
Weather And Climate Summary And Forecast: March 2020 Report, Gregory V. Jones
Weather And Climate Summary And Forecast: March 2020 Report, Gregory V. Jones
Linfield University Wine Studies Reports
This report provides a summary of the weather and climate forecast for March 2020. It includes forecast information specific to the Pacific Northwest and the western United States, as well as forecast information for other portions of the United States and abroad.
Utilizing Objective Drought Severity Thresholds To Improve Drought Monitoring, Zachary T. Leasor, Steven M. Quiring, Mark D. Svoboda
Utilizing Objective Drought Severity Thresholds To Improve Drought Monitoring, Zachary T. Leasor, Steven M. Quiring, Mark D. Svoboda
National Drought Mitigation Center: Faculty Publications
Drought is a prominent climatic hazard in the south-central United States. Drought severity is frequently classified using the categories established by the U.S. Drought Monitor (USDM). This study evaluates whether the thresholds for the standardized precipitation index (SPI) used by the USDM accurately classify drought severity. This study uses the SPI based on PRISM precipitation data from 1900 to 2015 to evaluate drought severity in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. The results show that the fixed SPI thresholds for the USDM drought categories may lead to a systematic underestimation of drought severity in arid regions. To address this issue, objective drought …
Rockhounding, Seafaring, And Other Material Tales For The End Of The World, Noemie Fortin
Rockhounding, Seafaring, And Other Material Tales For The End Of The World, Noemie Fortin
The Goose
In the face of accelerated environmental degradation and climate instability, the future of the Earth and of all life on earth is difficult to visualize. Therefore, the different mediums through which we consider environmental issues are just as important as the actions we take to address them. Focusing on three projects combining art, science, and activism, this article suggests a compilation of material tales. They tell stories of plastic rocks and aluminum nuggets where the protagonists are partly finely crafted objects, partly waste materials, and sometimes both at once. Artists Kelly Jazvac, Yesenia Thibeault-Picazo, and the collective Studio Swine collaborate …
Twentieth Century Black Carbon And Dust Deposition On South Cascade Glacier, Washington State, Usa, As Reconstructed From A 158‐M‐Long Ice Core, Susan D. Kaspari, Dan Pittenger, T. M. Jenk, U. Morgenstern, M. Schwikowski, N. Buenning, L. Stott
Twentieth Century Black Carbon And Dust Deposition On South Cascade Glacier, Washington State, Usa, As Reconstructed From A 158‐M‐Long Ice Core, Susan D. Kaspari, Dan Pittenger, T. M. Jenk, U. Morgenstern, M. Schwikowski, N. Buenning, L. Stott
All Faculty Scholarship for the College of the Sciences
Light absorbing particles (LAPs) include black carbon (BC) and mineral dust and are of interest due to their positive radiative forcing and contribution to albedo reductions and snow and glacier melt. This study documents historic BC and dust deposition as well as their effect on albedo on South Cascade Glacier (SCG) in Washington State (USA) through the analysis of a 158‐m (139.5‐m water equivalent [w.e.]) ice core extracted in 1994 and spanning the period 1840–1991. Peak BC deposition occurred between 1940 and 1960, when median BC concentrations were 16 times higher than background, likely dominated by domestic coal and forest …
Mass Spectrometric Calibration For Real -Time Hydrocarbon Detection, Makuachukwu Mbaegbu
Mass Spectrometric Calibration For Real -Time Hydrocarbon Detection, Makuachukwu Mbaegbu
LSU Master's Theses
Determining gas compositions from live well fluids on a drilling rig is critical for real time formation evaluation. However, development and utilization of a reliable mass spectrometric method to accurately characterize these live well fluids is always a challenging issue because of lack of a robust, quick and effectively selective instrument and method. The primary goal of this research is to understand reasons of such discrepancies in results between “good” spectra, and “poor” ones. The objectives are thus to identify the detection issues, calibrate and QA/QC the instruments, and analyze the results in lab settings. In this study, we used …