Natural Resources Management and Policy Commons^™

Reimagining Hunting Through Women's Decision Space, H. Nash Jackson

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Approximately 14.4 million people hunt in the United States, yet only 3.1 million (22%) of these hunters are women. To enhance women’s participation, many state natural resource agencies aim to reduce barriers and create pathways for women to hunt. Previously, researchers surveyed women to understand and describe barriers to their full participation in hunting. However, this methodology often just quantifies the different barriers without describing the interconnectedness and how the complexity of barriers can impact women’s participation in hunting. This thesis instead took an inductive research approach with the goal of better understanding women’s perspectives when faced with complex barriers. …

Critically Interrogating Wolf Eradication And Management Policy Through A Settler Colonial Lens: Toward A Compassionate Future, Karen M. Winter

Antioch University Dissertations & Theses

This largely conceptual multi-article dissertation centers settler colonial theory in a critical interrogation of Wolf eradication and management policy (WEMP) toward the ultimate goal of dismantling injurious structures and systems that brutalize Wolf and other Indigenous animals. Wildlife policy and practice are contemporary manifestations of the long-standing historical project of settler colonialism and its quest for acquisition and ultimate control of Land. Thus, the ongoing hegemonic control of systems of wildlife management and the propensity toward lethal control are also inextricably linked to the oppression of Indigenous worldview about human relationship with the natural world. Settler colonialism, as the nexus …

Building A Coordinated Framework For Research And Monitoring In Large-Scale International Marine Protected Areas: The Ross Sea Region As A Model System, Cassandra Brooks, Sharon Stammerjohn, Grant Ballard, Alice K. Duvivier, Eileen Hofmann, Michelle Larue, Cara Nissen, Alexander J. Orona, B. Jack Pan, Annie E. Schmidt, Nathan Walker, George M. Watters, John Weller

CCPO Publications

To fulfill their conservation potential and provide safeguards for biodiversity, marine protected areas (MPAs) need coordinated research and monitoring for informed management through effective evaluation of ecosystem dynamics. However, coordination is challenging, often due to knowledge gaps caused by inadequate access to data and resources, compounded by insufficient communication between scientists and managers. We propose to use the world's largest MPA in the Ross Sea, Antarctica as a model system to create a comprehensive framework for an interdisciplinary network supporting research and monitoring that could be implemented in other remote large-scale international MPAs. Our proposed framework has three key components: …

Ethyl-Iophenoxic Acid As A Serum Marker For Oral Baiting Of Tasmanian Devils, Ruth Pye, David Nichols, Sally A. Nofs, Amy T. Gilbert, Andrew S. Flies

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Oral baits containing vaccines, medicants or toxicants have been delivered to a broad range of wildlife species to protect against or treat disease, or suppress populations. Ethyl-Iophenoxic acid (Et-IPA) is used as a biomarker to determine oral bait consumption by wildlife species to assess and refine baiting strategies. Et-IPA is a persistent biomarker in many eutherian mammal species but not in the two marsupial species, swamp wallaby (Wallabia bicolor) and brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula), tested to date. Et-IPA has not previously been evaluated in carnivorous marsupials. The Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), the largest extant …

Landscape-Scale Epidemiological Dynamics Of Sars-Cov-2 In White-Tailed Deer, Joshua Hewitt, Grete Wilson-Henjum, Derek T. Collins, Timothy J. Linder, Julianna B. Lenoch, Jonathan D. Heale, Christopher A. Quintanal, Robert Pleszewski, Dillon S. Mcbride, Andrew S. Bowman, Jeffrey C. Chandler, Susan A. Shriner, Sarah N. Bevins, Dennis J. Kohler, Richard B. Chipman, Allen L. Gosser, David L. Bergman, Thomas J. Deliberto, Kim M. Pepin

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Understanding pathogen emergence in new host species is fundamental for developing prevention and response plans for human and animal health. We leveraged a large-scale surveillance dataset coordinated by United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service and State Natural Resources Agencies to quantify the outbreak dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 in North American white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus; WTD) throughout its range in the United States. Local epidemics in WTD were well approximated by a single-outbreak peak followed by fade out. Outbreaks peaked early in the northeast and mid- Atlantic. Local effective reproduction ratios of SARS-CoV-2 were between …

Probabilistic Genetic Identification Of Wild Boar Hybridization To Support Control Of Invasive Wild Pigs (Sus Scrofa), Timothy J. Smyser, Peter Pfaffelhuber, Rachael M. Giglio, Matthew G. Desaix, Amy J. Davis, Courtney F. Bowden, Michael A. Tabak, Arianna Manunza, Valentin Adrian Bâlteanu, Marcel Amills, Laura Iacolina, Pamela Walker, Carl Lessard, Antoinette J. Piaggio

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The rapid expansion of wild pigs (Sus scrofa) throughout the United States has been fueled by unlawful introductions, with invasive populations causing extensive crop losses, damaging native ecosystems, and serving as a reservoir for disease. Multiple states have passed laws prohibiting the possession or transport of wild pigs. However, genetic and phenotypic similarities between domestic pigs and invasive wild pigs—which overwhelmingly represent domestic pig and wild boar hybrids—pose a challenge for the enforcement of such regulations. We sought to exploit wild boar ancestry as a common attribute among the vast majority of invasive wild pigs as a means …

Efficacy Of X-Ray Phytosanitary Irradiation On The Infectivity And Reproduction Of Angiostrongylus Cantonensis In Experimentally Infected Rats, Susan I. Jarvi, Lisa M. Kaluna, Steven C. Hess, Lindsey Hamilton, Carmen Antaky, Robert T. Sugihara, Israel L. Leinbach, Yaeko Tagami, Argon Steel, Kathleen Howe, Steven Jacquier, Forrest Cookman, Jocelyn Diaz, John Jacob, Peter Follett

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Angiostrongylus cantonensis is a globally distributed nematode and the leading cause of eosinophilic meningitis in humans. As a global hotspot for this disease, Hawaii’s agricultural exports may be contributing to the spread of A. cantonensis. Phytosanitary irradiation doses of 150 or 400 Gy provide quarantine security against multiple insect pests. We evaluated the in vitro and in vivo effects of phytosanitary irradiation on infectious, third-stage A. cantonensis juveniles. In vitro experiments directly exposed juveniles to irradiation doses ranging from 200 to 1,000 Gy. Results showed low mortality and no dose response across all treatments 27 days post-irradiation. …

Potential Landscape Connectivity For Invasive Wild Pigs (Sus Scrofa) Across The Northern Prairies Of North America, Corey J. Kramer, Melanie R. Boudreau, Ryan Powers, Kurt C. Vercauteren, Ryan S. Miller, Ryan K. Brook

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Understanding landscape scale connectivity is an essential component in the management of invasive species since connectivity facilitates their invasion potential. Invasive wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are among the most prolific invaders on the planet, causing billions of dollars in agricultural and environmental damage annually. Newly introduced to Canada in the 1980s, we examined wild pig invasion potential across the northern prairies from western Canada into the currently wild pig-free northern U.S. states. We used GPS collar data collected in the Canadian prairies to quantify resource selection and incorporated results into an electric circuit theory framework to evaluate potential …

Eradication Of Feral Swine From A Barrier Island In Florida, Usa: An Examination Of Effort And Multi-Method, Multi-Species Population Indexing, Richard M. Engeman, Eric A. Tillman, Betsy A. Evans, John C. Griffin, Garrison Grobaski, Bradley S. Smith, John Stark, Bryan M. Kluever

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Feral swine (Sus scrofa) were targeted for and successfully eradicated from Saint Vincent Island (SVI), a National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) along the coast of Florida’s panhandle to protect its habitats and uncharacteristically high diversity of wildlife species for barrier islands in the region, including federal and state-listed threatened and endangered species. The eradication effort was initiated in early 2015 and concluded in 2019. A total of 438 feral swine were removed from the Island, 417 by federal control experts and 21 by recreational hunters. In general, the amount of effort needed to eradicate each feral swine slowly increased …

Effects Of Ungulate‐Proof Fencing On Space Use By Wild Pigs, Kelly Koriakin, D. Buck Jolley, Benjamin Smith, Kurt C. Vercauteren, Nathan P. Snow

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are a highly adaptable species that have invaded many regions and cause significant damage throughout the world. Ungulate‐proof fencing is increasingly used in conjunction with other control techniques to manage wild pig populations. However, little is known about how fencing affects wild pig space use behaviors and whether any changes may be exploited to increase efficacy of control activities. Our goal was to understand how wild pigs altered their space use behaviors in response to newly constructed fencing. Specifically, we examined for changes in space use area (home range and core area), increases in …

Relief Displacement Of Airborne Objects, Esteban Fernández-Juricic, Joe Crumpton, Morgan B. Pfeiffer, Sathishkummar Saiappan, Jared A. Elmore, Landon R. Jones, B. Santhana Krishnan, Raymond B. Iglay, Bradley F. Blackwell

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The increasing availability of unoccupied aircraft systems (UAS, also referred to as drones) has led to their use in taking vertical aerial photographs at relatively small spatial scales. These photographs can be used to measure the distances between objects appearing in the photographs. However, relief displacement can cause an object above or below ground level to appear at a point in a vertical aerial photograph that is not directly in-line with the object’s actual location, causing a measurement error. A UAS was used in this study as a photographed airborne object because its location and altitude could be controlled. We …

Efficacy Of Gonacon Fertility Control Against Prairie Dogs And Potential For Uses On Other Rodent Species, Aaron B. Shiels, Emily W. Ruell, Jason E. Bruemmer

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Use of a contraceptive (i.e., fertility control) is attractive for rodent management where lethal control is unwanted. Although population reduction is generally unachievable with small-scale, short-term contraceptive use, reduced juvenile recruitment is achievable. The injectable immunocontraceptive vaccine GonaCon (active ingredient: gonadotropin releasing hormone [GnRH]) was registered in 2022 by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for controlling fertility of female prairie dogs (Cynomys, a type of ground squirrel) in urban/suburban settings. Here we: 1) describe past research, including a replicated field study in Colorado (GonaCon treatment vs. control sites) testing efficacy of GonaCon in prairie dogs, which …

Using Environmental Dna Methods For Estimating Juvenile Chinook Salmon Abundance, Jacqueline Marie Bridegum

Cal Poly Humboldt theses and projects

In the Central Valley of California, stocks of Chinook Salmon are declining, and two out of the four ecotypes of Chinook Salmon within the Sacramento River system are federally listed. A monitoring network has been developed to estimate the abundances of downstream migrating Chinook Salmon smolts, but there is high uncertainty in these estimates due to low catch rates. Environmental DNA (eDNA) monitoring, which involves capture of genetic material that organisms release into their surrounding environment, has shown promise for estimating abundance of salmonids and could complement existing monitoring efforts and potentially reduce uncertainty in abundance estimates. This research project …

Incorporating Equity Into Sea-Level Rise Planning: Perspectives From Practitioners Across California, Nayré Herrera

Cal Poly Humboldt theses and projects

Scholars along with national and state governments have increasingly made calls to incorporate an equity lens into climate adaptation processes and into sea-level rise planning specifically. However, the language used in these high-level policies remains vague. There remains a need to learn from practitioners on the ground about the challenges and opportunities for effectively incorporating an equity lens into sea-level rise adaptation and planning efforts. I conducted interviews with 17 individuals who are working within their agencies or organizations to advance equity across the California coast along with a review of 17 California coastal policy documents to gain insights into …

Better Understanding The Barred Owl, Adam Lee Potts

Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers

This thesis research presents an analysis of barred owl nest site selection in an understudied region of their expanded range. The barred owl has dramatically expanded its range westwards over the last 150 years, prompting multiple conflicting reinterpretations of their species account. Hypotheses of range expansion are reviewed to provide context for this study’s research. This study gathers empirical data on nest site selection in the mixed conifer forests of Montana’s Seeley-Swan and Mission Valleys. Eight barred owl nests were located following extensive territory surveys. Field measurements of tree height and diameter using USFS Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) plot …

Soil Responses To Eastern Redcedar (Juniperus Virginiana L.) Afforestation And Prescribed Fire In South-Central South Dakota, Robert Schaefer

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Research was conducted in 2019 and 2020 on rangelands located in south-central South Dakota assessing a number of physical, chemical, and biological properties of mineral ustepts and ustents soils associated with eastern redcedar (ERC) (Juniperus virginiana) afforestation and prescribed fire. ERC afforestation appeared to be associated with significantly higher field-condition soil aggregate stability, cation exchange capacity (CEC), soil pH, and fungi:bacteria (F:B) as well as significantly lower soil moisture, nitrate-N, phosphorus, bacteria biomass, and Gram-positive:Gram-negative (GP:GN) bacteria compared to native grassland conditions, while other mineral soil properties appeared relatively unaffected. Compared to soil conditions under dense, living ERC canopies, prescribed …

Increasing Retention Of Women In Hunting And Fishing, Shelby Isensee

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Despite national declines in hunting and fishing, women are making inroads in historically male-dominated sports. To further encourage women’s participation, states established programs to recruit, retain, and reactivate [R3] hunters and anglers. Women are participating in these programs and other recreational groups to access opportunities to learn skills and grow their networks. Yet, very little is known about what programs are offered for women, what aspects of programs are most effective to support women’s retention in these activities, and what women’s hunting and fishing groups are available across the landscape. To address these questions, I collected qualitative data from participant …

Respiratory Disease In Bighorn Sheep: A Varied Investigation Of Immunization, Transmission, And Detection, Katelin Frerichs

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Respiratory disease has historically been recognized as a limiting factor to wild bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) herds throughout North America with epizootics resulting in large-scale die offs and reductions in recruitment. The primary etiologic agent associated with pneumonia outbreaks in bighorn sheep is Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae. This bacterial pathogen is frequently carried asymptomatically by domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and goats (Capra hircus); however, when these domestic hosts come in contact with and spread this pathogen to bighorns, the disease can cause epizootics and large-scale mortality. Domestic sheep strains are more commonly detected in bighorn sheep than domestic goat strains, and previous …

Influence Of Cross-Country Skiing & Off-Leash Dogs On Wildlife Habitat Use In Lubrecht Experimental Forest, Sophie Ann Morris

Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers

Outdoor recreation activities are seen as a type of anthropogenic stressor that can significantly impact wildlife. Despite winter recreational activities having a more negative effect on wildlife compared to summer or aquatic recreation, they are the least studied in terms of impact (Larson et al., 2016). Wildlife species can be influenced both temporally and spatially by the development of winter recreation trails and snow-based recreation (Braunisch et al., 2011; Olsen et al., 2018). This research combines natural and social science methods to assess how cross-country skiers affect wildlife activity patterns, guiding decisions about managing recreation. During two winter data collections, …

From Creek To Ditch And Back Again: The History And Future Of Pattee Creek, Missoula, Montana, Carver Edward Butterfield

Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers

Pattee Creek was once a free-flowing stream that meandered across the Missoula Valley, but has been channelized, piped, and degraded by logging, mining, agriculture, and urbanization. This thesis used a mixed-method approach to examine the impact of human activities on the Pattee Creek watershed. Beginning with a historical overview, the story of how the creek has been utilized and why it was buried was told. An analysis of historical photos from 1937 to 2019 revealed drastic changes in the land cover of the watershed and the channel of lower Pattee Creek. Developed land increased dramatically, while open land decreased and …

A Tale Of Two Working Landscapes, Sage C. Sutcliffe

Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers

No abstract provided.

Evolution Of Regulations Impacting Landowner Decision Making: A Comparison Of Private Forest Policies In California And Oregon, Claire E. Anderson

Cal Poly Humboldt theses and projects

California and Oregon have long and dynamic histories of forest practice regulation on privately owned lands. Private lands remain connected to the larger environment despite arbitrary property boundaries, thus management decisions made on those lands impact ecosystem services across landscapes. Because forests have public trust resources such as clean water, there are policy tools that facilitate public involvement in private forest land decision making.

This study compares the trajectories of policy changes governing private corporate forest landowners in California and Oregon. Interviews with environmental advocates, agency members, and forestry professionals, along with document analysis, provide key insights to how private …

Recent Beak Evolution In North American Starlings After Invasion, Julia M. Zichello, Shelagh T. Deliberto, Paul Shrewsbury, Agnieszka A. Pierwola, Scott J. Werner

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

European starlings are one of the most abundant and problematic avian invaders in the world. From their native range across Eurasia and North Africa, they have been introduced to every continent except Antarctica. In 160 years, starlings have expanded into different environments throughout the world, making them a powerful model for understanding rapid evolutionary change and adaptive plasticity. Here, we investigate their spatiotemporal morphological variation in North America and the native range. Our dataset includes 1,217 specimens; a combination of historical museum skins and modern birds. Beak length in the native range has remained unchanged during the past 206 years, …

Oral Rabies Vaccination Of Raccoons (Procyon Lotor) Across A Development Intensity Gradient In Burlington, Vermont, Usa, 2015–2017, Emily M. Beasley, Kathleen M. Nelson, Dennis Slate, Amy T. Gilbert, Frederick E. Pogmore, Richard B. Chipman, Amy J. Davis

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Management of the raccoon rabies virus variant in North America is conducted primarily using oral rabies vaccination (ORV). When a sufficient proportion of the population is vaccinated (60%), rabies transmission can be eliminated. To date, ORV programs have successfully controlled and eliminated raccoon rabies in rural areas, but there has been less success in urban areas. We studied the proportions of rabies virus neutralizing antibodies (RVNA) in a raccoon (Procyon lotor) population during a 3-year ORV trial in developed areas of Burlington, Vermont, United States. We used a modified N-mixture model to estimate raccoon abundance, RVNA seroprevalence, and …

Assessing The Efficiency Of Local Rabies Vaccination Strategies For Raccoons (Procyon Lotor) In An Urban Setting, Guillaume Bastille-Rousseau, Nicole T. Gorman, Katherine M. Mcclure, Larissa Nituch, Tore Buchanan, Richard B. Chipman, Amy T. Gilbert, Kim M. Pepin

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Raccoon rabies virus (RRV) has been managed using multiple vaccination strategies, including oral rabies vaccination and trap-vaccinate-release (TVR). Identifying a rabies vaccination strategy for an area is a nontrivial task. Vaccination strategies differ in the amount of effort and monetary costs required to achieve a particular level of vaccine seroprevalence (efficiency). Simulating host movement relative to different vaccination strategies in silico can provide a useful tool for exploring the efficiency of different vaccination strategies. We refined a previously developed individual-based model of raccoon movement to evaluate vaccination strategies for urban Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. We combined different oral rabies vaccination baiting …

Limitations Of Invasive Snake Control Tools In The Context Of A New Invasion On An Island With Abundant Prey, Shane R. Siers, Melia G. Nafus, Jereid E. Calaor, Rachel M. Volsteadt, Matthew S. Grassi, Megan Volsteadt, Aaron F. Collins, Patrick D. Barnhart, Logan T. Huse, Amy A. Yackel Adams, Diane L. Vice

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

In October 2020, a new population of invasive brown treesnakes (Boiga irregularis) was discovered on the 33-ha Cocos Island, 2.5 km off the south coast of Guam, United States. Cocos Island is a unique conservation resource, providing refuge for many lizards and birds, including endangered species, which were extirpated from mainland Guam by invasive predators including brown treesnakes. We sought to evaluate the usefulness of toxic baiting with acetaminophen-treated carrion baits and cage trapping, common tools for the control of brown treesnakes on mainland Guam, as potential eradication tools on Cocos Island. We evaluated multiple bait types and …

Site-Specific Space Use And Resource Selection By Black Vultures (Coragyps Atratus) In The Southeastern Usa, Betsy Evans, John S. Humphrey, Eric A. Tillman, Michael L. Avery, Bryan M. Kluever

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

North American populations of Black Vultures Coragyps atratus have increased and expanded their distribution in the southern and eastern USA. In conjunction with these patterns has been a rise in human–vulture conflicts. To improve our understanding of space use patterns and better inform management, we evaluated the movements of Black Vultures (n = 23) in the southeastern USA using a long-term GPS tracking database. Our specific objectives were to: (1) quantify home-range sizes in relation to season and geographical study location and (2) examine within-home-range resource selection to identify landscape and anthropogenic factors influencing roost and diurnal space use. …

Treatment With The Immunocontraceptive Vaccine, Gonacon, Induces Temporary Fertility Control In Free-Ranging Prairie Dog Populations In Colorado, Usa, Aaron B. Shiels, Jackson Runte, Emily W. Ruell, Douglas C. Eckery, Gary W. Witmer, Daniel J. Salkeld

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Context

Prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) are rodents enjoyed by some humans; yet, they cause crop and property damage, and carry zoonotic disease. Non-lethal control of prairie dogs is of interest in urban/suburban settings. The injectable immunocontraceptive vaccine GonaCon (active ingredient is gonadotropin-releasing hormone [GnRH]) has been shown to be effective at reducing fertility in equine and deer, and is a US EPA-registered vaccine for use in these ungulate species.

Aims

To conduct a replicated field study to test efficacy of GonaCon in black-tailed prairie dogs (C. ludovicianus), and if found to be efficacious, to help facilitate …

Comparison Of Ketamine-Xylazine, Butorphanol-Azaperone-Medetomidine, And Nalbuphine-Medetomidine-Azaperone For Raccoon (Procyon Lotor) Immobilization, Shylo R. Johnson, Christine K. Ellis, Chad Wickham, Molly R. Selleck, Amy T. Gilbert

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Raccoons (Procyon lotor) are frequently handled using chemical immobilization in North America for management and research. In a controlled environment, we compared three drug combinations: ketamine-xylazine (KX), butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine (BAM), and nalbuphinemedetomidine- azaperone (NalMed-A) for raccoon immobilization. In crossover comparisons, raccoons received a mean of the following: 8.66 mg/kg ketamine and 1.74 mg/kg xylazine (0.104 mL/kg KX); 0.464 mg/kg butorphanol, 0.155 mg/kg azaperone, and 0.185 mg/kg medetomidine (0.017 mL/kg BAM); and 0.800 mg/kg nalbuphine, 0.200 mg/kg azaperone, and 0.200 mg/kg medetomidine (0.020 mL/kg NalMed-A). Induction time was shortest with KX (mean6SE, 10.060.7 min) and longest with NalMed-A (13.061.3 min). …

Use Of Rhodamine B As A Biomarker In A Simulated Oral Vaccine Deployment Against Bovine Tuberculosis In White-Tailed Deer, David Dressel, Kurt Vercauteren, Michael Lavelle, Nathan P. Snow, Henry Campa Iii

United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Introduction Free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in northeastern lower Michigan, United States are a self-sustaining reservoir for bovine tuberculosis (bTB). Farm mitigation practices, baiting bans, and antlerless deer harvests have been ineffective in eliminating bTB in white-tailed deer and risks to cattle. The apparent prevalence has remained relatively constant in deer, prompting interest among wildlife researchers, managers, and veterinarians for an effective means of vaccinating deer against bTB. The commonly used human vaccine for bTB, Bacillus Calmette Guerin (BCG), is the primary candidate with oral delivery being the logical means for vaccinating deer.

Materials and methods We developed …