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- Electrocatalysis (74)
- Cyclic voltammetry (65)
- Oxygen reduction reaction (65)
- Electrodeposition (62)
- Lithium ion battery (57)
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- Electrochemistry (47)
- Corrosion (43)
- Supercapacitor (43)
- Cathode material (39)
- Electrochemical performance (39)
- Lithium-ion batteries (34)
- Fuel cell (32)
- Lithium-ion battery (32)
- Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (29)
- Modified electrode (27)
- Lithium ion batteries (26)
- Anode (23)
- Carbon nanotubes (23)
- Cathode (22)
- Electrolyte (21)
- Oxygen evolution reaction (21)
- Anode materials (20)
- Polyaniline (20)
- Electrocatalyst (19)
- Fuel cells (19)
- Lithium-sulfur batteries (19)
- Anode material (18)
- EIS (18)
- Hydrogen evolution reaction (18)
- Li-ion battery (18)
- Publication Year
Articles 1861 - 1890 of 2042
Full-Text Articles in Materials Chemistry
A Preliminary Study On Thin Film Plasticizing Lithium Ion Battery, Quanfeng Dong, Hanxi Yang, Xinping Ai, Xiaohong Hu, Shengxian Li
A Preliminary Study On Thin Film Plasticizing Lithium Ion Battery, Quanfeng Dong, Hanxi Yang, Xinping Ai, Xiaohong Hu, Shengxian Li
Journal of Electrochemistry
A dry polymer electrolyte was made by plasticizing a copolymer matrix and further filling with liquid electrolyte. A thin-film lithium ion battery based on the dry polymer electrolyte was manufactured and its electrochemical properties were measured. It is found that the thin film lithium ion battery exhibits similar discharge properties to liquid electrolyte battery, and shows strong high rate capability.
Microelectrode Studies On The Pitting Corrosion Process Of Stainless Steel, Changjian Lin, Lijian Chen, Ronggui Du, Zude Feng, Jianguang Tang, Hongping Dai
Microelectrode Studies On The Pitting Corrosion Process Of Stainless Steel, Changjian Lin, Lijian Chen, Ronggui Du, Zude Feng, Jianguang Tang, Hongping Dai
Journal of Electrochemistry
Differing with the scanning microelectrode techniques, which scan microelctrode closely to the interface of electrode/electrolyte and make electrochemical imaging in a lateral spatial resolution, the technique of microelectrode with a micron diameter is of very high time-resolution and ratio of signal/noise in electrochemical measurements. The microelectrode technique allows double-layer capacitance and background current for a microelectrode to be drastically reduced due to the exposed area of a microelectrode is usually 6～8 orders of magnetite lower than that of a conventional electrode with large-scale exposed area. Microelectrode was recently developed as a new powerful electrochemical technique and widely used in the …
Gold Electrodeposition On Microelectrodes, Lihua Xiong, Caihui Shi, Xiaoqin Li, Bingwei Mao
Gold Electrodeposition On Microelectrodes, Lihua Xiong, Caihui Shi, Xiaoqin Li, Bingwei Mao
Journal of Electrochemistry
The initial stage electrodeposition behaviors of gold onto glassy carbon and platinum microelectrodes are studied in an acid solution containing AuCl3 using cyclic voltammetry and potential step techniques. The results suggest that gold nucleation on microelectrodes requires a higher driving force with high probability. Within the range of the microelectrode dimension that have been used in the present work, large amount of gold nucleus could be formed at short time scale at overpotentials higher than a threshole value. The It curves from the platinum microelectrode are in consistence with the continuous nucleation model. It has been found that …
Study On The Synthesis And Electrochemical Behavior Of Poly (Quinonoid-Disulfide), Xiaohui Tang, Xiuwu Sun, Yongfang Li, Shibi Fang
Study On The Synthesis And Electrochemical Behavior Of Poly (Quinonoid-Disulfide), Xiaohui Tang, Xiuwu Sun, Yongfang Li, Shibi Fang
Journal of Electrochemistry
Organic polydisulfide containing quinonoid structure was synthesized by chloromethylation, oxidation by nitric acid, and condensation polymerization with sodium disulfide. The effect of quinonoid structure on the electrochemical behavior of organic polydisulfide was investigated with cyclic voltammetry and chargedischarge measurement. The result shows that quinonoid struture mainly affects the positions of redox peaks of organic polydisulfide, open circuit voltage and discharge platform voltage of cell with the organic polydisulfide as cathode.
The Investigations Of Surface Treatment Methods And Characterization Of Oxide Films On Ab5 Based Metal Hydride Electrodes Ⅰ. New NiRich Treatment Methods And Photoelectrochemical Characterization Of Oxide Films, Junmin Nan, Yong Yang, Jun Li, Zugeng Lin
The Investigations Of Surface Treatment Methods And Characterization Of Oxide Films On Ab5 Based Metal Hydride Electrodes Ⅰ. New NiRich Treatment Methods And Photoelectrochemical Characterization Of Oxide Films, Junmin Nan, Yong Yang, Jun Li, Zugeng Lin
Journal of Electrochemistry
Two simple and efficient surface treatment methods for AB5 type hydrogen storage alloys were developed. The results of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and cyclic voltammetric (CV) experiments showed that the hydrogen storage alloys treated by two different methods had Ni rich surface layer so that the performances of the electrodes were improved after treatment. The characterization of the oxide films which formed on the surface of electrodes through potentiodynamic oxidation with the help of photoelectrochemical microscopy (PEM) were done. The anodic photocurrent and the cathodic photocurrent related to the oxidation of hydrogen and the reduction of oxygen on the …
Spectroscopic Investigation Of Ion Transport Mechanisms In Polyacrylonitrile Based Electrolytes, Zhaoxiang Wang, Biying Huang, Rongjian Xue, Xuejie Huang, Liquan Chen
Spectroscopic Investigation Of Ion Transport Mechanisms In Polyacrylonitrile Based Electrolytes, Zhaoxiang Wang, Biying Huang, Rongjian Xue, Xuejie Huang, Liquan Chen
Journal of Electrochemistry
Raman, IR, X-ray photoelectron (XPS), and NMR spectra of components in polyacrylonitrile based electrolytes have been studied. It is found that there are strong interactions among the components though different systems show different interaction characteristics. A concept of competition is proposed between the polymer matrix and the plasticizer on associating with the Li+ ions. By analyzing the important functions of the plasticizer, a possible mechanism of the ions transport in the polymer electrolyte is suggested.
Electrochemical Impedance Of Molten Salts Induced Hot Corrosion, Chaoliu Zeng, Weitao Wu, Jianqing Zhang
Electrochemical Impedance Of Molten Salts Induced Hot Corrosion, Chaoliu Zeng, Weitao Wu, Jianqing Zhang
Journal of Electrochemistry
Electrochemical impedance technique was employed to study corrosion behaviors of Ni-3Al, IN100 and IN738 alloys in molten (Na, K, Li)2SO4 at 700 ℃. The Nyquist plots for Ni-3Al and IN100 alloys have the characteristics of diffusion controlled reaction. But, the corrosion reaction for IN738 alloy is not controlled by the diffusion of oxidants. The equivalent circuits were proposed, and the parameters in circuits were also calculated. Ni-3Al and IN100 alloys suffer from catastrophic corrosion due to the formation of a porous corrosion layer. IN738 alloy has excellent corrosion resistance because of the formation of a protective oxide …
A Study Of Adsorption Kinetics Of Β-Phenylaminopropiophenone On Iron In Acid Solution, Dihua Wang, Xianzhang Bu, Jinyun Zou, Fuxing Gan
A Study Of Adsorption Kinetics Of Β-Phenylaminopropiophenone On Iron In Acid Solution, Dihua Wang, Xianzhang Bu, Jinyun Zou, Fuxing Gan
Journal of Electrochemistry
The adsorption kinetics of β-phenylaminopropiophenone (PAP) on iron electrode in 0.5 mol/L H2SO4 solution with or without Cl- were investigated by chronoamperometry.
A Study On Heterogeneous Indirect Electrosynthesis Of Benzaldehyde, Daobao Chu, Changjian Lin, Huashui Lin, Jianguang Tan
A Study On Heterogeneous Indirect Electrosynthesis Of Benzaldehyde, Daobao Chu, Changjian Lin, Huashui Lin, Jianguang Tan
Journal of Electrochemistry
Heterogeneous indirect electrosynthesis process of benzaldehyde has been investigated using cyclic voltammetry and polarization curves. An optimum condition for preparation of benzaldehyde by indirect electrooxidation of toluenc with redox Mn3+/Mn2+ is given in this paper. Electrolytic regeneration Mn3+ are made at Pt/Ti anode in “slurry” MnSO4/H2SO4 medium. Current efficiency for electrolytic regeneration Mn3+ was maintained over 88% by “double cyclic way”.
Investigation Of Methanol Anode Electrooxidation Catalysts, Gangyao Wen, Ying Zhang, Zhenglong Yang, Changzhi Li
Investigation Of Methanol Anode Electrooxidation Catalysts, Gangyao Wen, Ying Zhang, Zhenglong Yang, Changzhi Li
Journal of Electrochemistry
A series of catalysts, Pt-WO3/C, Pt/Ru/C and Pt-Ru-WO3/C were prepared by chemical reduction deposition. Electrocatalytic oxidation of methanolon different catalyst/Nafion membrane electrodes was studies by voltammetry and current-potential polarization. The results indicated that the catalytic activity order of different catalysts is as follows: Pt-Ru-WO3/C > Pt-Ru/C > Pt-WO3/C. At the same time, influences of methanol concentrations and catalyst proportion on performances of anodes were also studies.
Investigation On The Ellipsometry For The Detection Of Nickel Through Anodic Stripping Voltammetry, Wei Zhu, Yu-Ru Yang, Zong-Qing Huang
Investigation On The Ellipsometry For The Detection Of Nickel Through Anodic Stripping Voltammetry, Wei Zhu, Yu-Ru Yang, Zong-Qing Huang
Journal of Electrochemistry
The ellipsometry with a new parameter Vop and anodic stripping voltammetry are used to analyze the nickel ions solutions with different concentration of 10-6～10-9 mol/L. It is shown that the results given by both methods are identical and the sensitivity and accuracy of ellipsometry are higher than anodic stripping voltammety.
Progresses In Surface Electrochemistry And Electrocatalysis ——A Review On The 1997 Joint International Meeting Of Electrochemistry And 97' International Meeting Of Surface Electrochemistry, Shigang Sun
Journal of Electrochemistry
The progresses in surface electrochemistry and electrocatalsis reported in the 1997 joint international meeting of electrochemistry and in the 97′ international meeting of surface electrochemistry were reviewed. The main trends described in this paper consisted of 7 aspects: 1) the studies employing single crystal electrodes, 2) the development of in situ methods of diverse spectroscpoy, 3) the innovation of new research techniques, 4) the preparaton of electrocatalyst of high performances, 5) the quantitative studies on kinetics of electrocatalytic reactions, 6) the investigation on the dynamic processes of surface by timeresolved methods, and 7) the theoretical modeling and simulation of surface …
Anchor Effect Of Iron And Cobalt To Platinum On Carbon Substrates, Zidong Wei, Hetong Guo, Zhiyuan Tan
Anchor Effect Of Iron And Cobalt To Platinum On Carbon Substrates, Zidong Wei, Hetong Guo, Zhiyuan Tan
Journal of Electrochemistry
The cathodic reduction of oxygen is studied on porous carbonbased electrodes carrying platinumiron and/or cobalt alloy catalysts. Electrodes using such electrocatalysts, particularly when used as cathodes in acidic electrolytes, remain stable for longer periods. The cathodic polarization of oxygen reduction on such electrodes is 20 mV to 40 mV lower than that on the conventional electrode on which only platinum alone is used as an electrocatalysts. An accelerated aging test (AAT) is used to evaluate the corrosion resistance and sintering resistance of each catalyst. The dissolution of the catalyst in the AAT filtrate is analysed and provides a measure of …
Study On Nano Electrode Material Of Lithium Ion Batteries, Jinkua You, Yong Yang, Dong Shu, Shenghui Wu, Yingchun Zhang, Zugeng Lin
Study On Nano Electrode Material Of Lithium Ion Batteries, Jinkua You, Yong Yang, Dong Shu, Shenghui Wu, Yingchun Zhang, Zugeng Lin
Journal of Electrochemistry
In this paper, the structure and morphology of the nano phase electrode materials have been characterized with XRD and TEM. The performances of electrochemical intercalation and deintercalation of lithium ions have been studied by using cyclic voltammograms and galvanostatic charge discharge techniques. The results show that the nano materials posses advantage of micro structure and Li+ ions intercalation performances. The observed high capacity and large charge discharge current density of the nano phase materials seem to have resulted from three kinds of effects: 1) an increase in the space for Li+ ions intercalation; 2) a decrease in the …
The Migration Of Samarium(Ⅲ) Across Oil/Water Interface, Jun-Wei Di, Xiao-Xing Xu, Ying Wu, Rui-Xi Fan
The Migration Of Samarium(Ⅲ) Across Oil/Water Interface, Jun-Wei Di, Xiao-Xing Xu, Ying Wu, Rui-Xi Fan
Journal of Electrochemistry
The migration of Samarium(Ⅲ) across water/nitrobenzene (w/nb) interface facilitated by diantipyrylmethane (DAM) and the electrochemical behaviour affected by emulsifier OP in the nb phase have been studied by normal and convolute cyclic voltammetry. It is concluded that the formation of the complex occurs at w/nb interface and the mechanism of the samarium(Ⅲ)transfer across w/nb interface facilitated by DAM is E mechanism.
Preparation Of High Rate Discharge Foamed Ni-Cd Battery, Yuming Wang, Jinsheng Chen
Preparation Of High Rate Discharge Foamed Ni-Cd Battery, Yuming Wang, Jinsheng Chen
Journal of Electrochemistry
A novel device of SC type foamed NiCd battery is presented, in which, the innerresistance of battery is appeared to be reduced, and the electrode performance is gained to very improved, and so, this battery can be suited to using of the powerdrive pistol drill.
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Materials And Technology, Naichao Li, Baolian Yi
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Materials And Technology, Naichao Li, Baolian Yi
Journal of Electrochemistry
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell materials are reviewed, and the technology of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell are discussed.
The Effect Of Solution Composition On The Corrosion Behavior Of Electrodeposited Zinc Powder, Qingwen Li, Qin Yang, Xi Xia
The Effect Of Solution Composition On The Corrosion Behavior Of Electrodeposited Zinc Powder, Qingwen Li, Qin Yang, Xi Xia
Journal of Electrochemistry
Zinc powder as a widely anode material can be electrowon from ZnCl2 or ZnO+KOH media. The properties of zinc powder are likely to be modified with electrolytic conditions such as the composition of bath solution, electrolysis manner, current density and additives etc.. In this paper, we have discussed the effect of the compositions of bath solution on the microstructure and corrosion resistance of zinc powder.
The Activity Of Alloy Cu-Ni Electrode In Electroreduction Of Aromatic Nitro-Compounds, Chunan Ma, Shaoping Tong, Xiaojun Cheng, Hui Wang
The Activity Of Alloy Cu-Ni Electrode In Electroreduction Of Aromatic Nitro-Compounds, Chunan Ma, Shaoping Tong, Xiaojun Cheng, Hui Wang
Journal of Electrochemistry
Cu-Ni alloy on the basis of copper at different ratio Cu/Ni are prepared by codepostion. The cathode activtiy of film are studied by steady-state polarization for electroreduction nitro-benzene (NB) and 1,5-dinitroanthraquinone (1,5-DNA) to p-aminophenol and 1,5-diamino-4,8-dihydroanthraquinone respectly. The results show that the alloy cathodes at different ratio Cu/Ni have different exchange current density (io) and apparent activition energy (EA). The alloy (CN-30) has maximal io and minimal EA by codeposition at the following conditions: electrolyte: 0.05 mol/L CuSO4·5H2O+0.6 mol/L NiSO4·6H2O+0.25 mol/L Na3Cit·2H2O; …
Study On The Oxygen Electrodes Of Alkaline Fuel Cells Effect Of Dopant On The Activity Of Ag/C Catalyst, Jiawei Teng, Linhua Jin, Luncheng Tang
Study On The Oxygen Electrodes Of Alkaline Fuel Cells Effect Of Dopant On The Activity Of Ag/C Catalyst, Jiawei Teng, Linhua Jin, Luncheng Tang
Journal of Electrochemistry
A new kind of nonnoble catalyst for the oxygen electrodes of Alkaline Fuel Cells was investigated. The AgNiBiHg/C catalyst, which was prepared by chemical reduction, was active for the cathodic reduction of oxygen in alkaline fuel cells. It was found that the catalytic activity was improved by adding Ni, Bi, Hg to Ag/C catalyst, and the maximum activity was observed at Ag50%-Ni2%-Bi3%-Hg3%-C42%(wt%). XRD inconjunction with SEM indicated that the crystalline silver turned into amorphous in the presence of doping agents and the grain size of silver was reduced. No dramatic deactivation of the catalyst occured after 5200 hours of service.
Development Of A New Type Ni-S Evolution Hydrogen Electrode For Water Electrolysis, Xiaoyou Yuan, Jinyu Wang
Development Of A New Type Ni-S Evolution Hydrogen Electrode For Water Electrolysis, Xiaoyou Yuan, Jinyu Wang
Journal of Electrochemistry
A new type evolution hydrogen electrode NiS(N) has been made from nickel plating electrode in NiSO4CS(NH2)2 bath by electrodeposition. It is analyzed by SEM and X-ray energy spectrum. The NiS(N) electrode is different from the NiS(O) electrode (which is used in plant at present time) in surface metallograph configuration and surfer content. The results of measurement polarization curves and water electrolysis 480 hours at 5 000 A·m-2 show that the evolution hydrogen overpotential of NiS(N) electrode is decreased at least 160 mV relative to NiS(O) electrode and the stablisum of NiS(N) electrode is better …
Advances In Solid Polymer Electrolytes, Liming Ding, Shaojun Dong, Erkang Wang
Advances In Solid Polymer Electrolytes, Liming Ding, Shaojun Dong, Erkang Wang
Journal of Electrochemistry
The formation, classification, applications and ion-transport mechanism studies of solid polymer electrolytes were reviewed. While the recent SPE reports on the preparation of novel materials, the full structure determinations of PEO/salt complexes, the exploration of ion-transport mechanism and the applications in electrochemical devices being introduced, some prospects on the future SPE research were suggested.
The Effect Of Bismuth On Microstructure Of The Cathodic Copper Deposition Of Copper Electrorefining, Daorong Lu, Jianxing Lin
The Effect Of Bismuth On Microstructure Of The Cathodic Copper Deposition Of Copper Electrorefining, Daorong Lu, Jianxing Lin
Journal of Electrochemistry
The electrocrystal formation, crystal orientation and the chemical composition of the cathodic copper deposition in the presence of Bi3+ in the electrolyte of acidified CuSO4 are studies by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, atomic absorption and EDAM. The results indicate that the Bi could′t deposit on cathode when copper electrolysed at common current density i=200 A·mol/L-2 and t=60 ℃. Bi3+ scarcely effected on the crystal orientation (220) of copper deposition. High concentration Bi3+ in the electrolyte promoted (220) growth and inhibited the other crystal orientation growth. Bi3+ effected on electrocrystal formation and the cell …
Mechanism Of Electrodeposition Of Cu/Co Multilayer Thin Films, Jiangyun Xue, Jixun Wu, Dejun Yang
Mechanism Of Electrodeposition Of Cu/Co Multilayer Thin Films, Jiangyun Xue, Jixun Wu, Dejun Yang
Journal of Electrochemistry
The mechanism of electrodeposition of Cu/Co multilayer thin films has been studied by means of potentodynamic sweep, cyclic voltammetry sweep and AC impendance. The results indicated that the copper deposition is mass transfer controlled process and the cobalt deposition is related to the absorbed intermediate species such as Co(OH)ads. The cobalt ions first form Co(OH)ads, then was deoxygenated to cobalt on the electrode surface.
Study On Perchlorate Produced By Electrolysis With Oxygen Cathode, Zhigang Shao, Baolian Yi, Naichao Li, Ming Han
Study On Perchlorate Produced By Electrolysis With Oxygen Cathode, Zhigang Shao, Baolian Yi, Naichao Li, Ming Han
Journal of Electrochemistry
A new method of measuring the flow capacity of cell gas in the perchlorate cell process equipped with an oxygen cathode is applided to investigate the influence of changes in the concentration of solution (chloride, chlorate, perchlorate and metal ion) and changes in the operation parameters (current density, temperature and pH) on perchlorate current efficiency. The main abstacle that the oxygen cathode is used in the perchlorate cell process is put forward and a method is provided to resolve it.
Photoluminescence Of Photoelectrochemically Etched N+-Si, Guozheng Li, Chengqian Zhang, Xiumei Yang
Photoluminescence Of Photoelectrochemically Etched N+-Si, Guozheng Li, Chengqian Zhang, Xiumei Yang
Journal of Electrochemistry
PS layer on n+-Si with (111) orientation prepered by means of photoelectrochemically etched has photo-luminescent (PL) ability like PS layer on usual n-Si. The data of PL spectra and quenching are given.
Corrosion Behaviour Of Copper Covered With Ion Selective Phenolic Coatings By Eis, Zhoucheng Wang, Yingzhou Zhang, Shaomin Zhou
Corrosion Behaviour Of Copper Covered With Ion Selective Phenolic Coatings By Eis, Zhoucheng Wang, Yingzhou Zhang, Shaomin Zhou
Journal of Electrochemistry
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy(EIS) technique was employed to study the corrosion behaviour of copper painted with the anion selective, cation selective and bipolar phenolic coatings in 3% NaCl solution. From the impedance spectrum characteristics, the models of equivalent circuit for these different coating systems were established, and the methods for the analysis of experimental impedance diagrams in terms of coating and interface properties were discussed. The research results show that the composition and structure of ion selective coatings have significant influence on corrosion behaviour of copper. The bipolar coating consisting of an anion selective inner layer and a cation selective outer …
Preparation Of Pbo2/Ti Plate Electrode, Zhigang Shao, Baolian Yi, Xinge Zhang, Enjun Zhang
Preparation Of Pbo2/Ti Plate Electrode, Zhigang Shao, Baolian Yi, Xinge Zhang, Enjun Zhang
Journal of Electrochemistry
The perchlorate was made up of a lead dioxide plate elcetrode and an oxygen cathode. By measuring the flow capacity of cell gas in the cell, and by means of CV, SEM, XRD, the performances of the lead dioxide plate electrodes are evaluated. The influence of changes in the concentrations of electroplating solutions (F, HNO3, Bi3+, Ni2+, Fe3+ and surface active agent) is investigated. The results show that the concentrations of Fe3+ in the solutions must be lower 0.01 g/L, and the concentrations of HNO3 in the solutions are about 20 …
Surface Modifications Of Carbon Materials Used As Anode Of Lithium Ion Battery Ⅲ. Improvement Of Artificially Imposed Solid Electrolyte Film On Cell Performance, Shuhua Ma, Xiabin Jing, Fosong Wang
Surface Modifications Of Carbon Materials Used As Anode Of Lithium Ion Battery Ⅲ. Improvement Of Artificially Imposed Solid Electrolyte Film On Cell Performance, Shuhua Ma, Xiabin Jing, Fosong Wang
Journal of Electrochemistry
The improving effect of solid electrolyte film artificially imposed on carbon electrode was investigated. The result showed that both the charge/discharge capacity and first charge/discharge efficiency, to a certain extent, were enhanced, and the result also suggested the effectiveness of the substitution of the artificially imposed solid electrolyte film for the inherent passivating film which was formed on the surface of the carbon electrode while inserted in the electrolyte during charging or discharging. The Scanning Electron Microscope result displayed the compact and well-defined morphology of the artificially imposed crystalline film.
Preparation And Examination Of Planar Type Solid Oxide Fuel Cells, Yi Jiang, Jingwang Yan, Shizhong Wang, Chunying Yu, Wenzhao Li
Preparation And Examination Of Planar Type Solid Oxide Fuel Cells, Yi Jiang, Jingwang Yan, Shizhong Wang, Chunying Yu, Wenzhao Li
Journal of Electrochemistry
The solid oxide fuel cells of planar type (SOFC) have been developed after successfully preparing La0.8Sr0.2MnO3 cathodes and Ni-YSZ ceramic anodes on YSZ plates and solving the high temperature sealing technical problem. Examination of the single cells fabricated showed that the maximum power output at 950 ℃ for H2 as fuel and air as oxidant reached 0.12 W/cm2. It was found that the large polarization overpotential of the Ni-YSZ anode and the Ohmic losses of the cells were two main factors responsible for the relative low output power density.