Materials Chemistry Commons^™

Electrodeposition Of Cigs Thin Film With Special Structure Using Laser Etching Template, Jin-Zhi Yu, Ye Lian, Jin-Qiu Zhang, Pei-Xia Yang, Mao-Zhong An

Journal of Electrochemistry

Copper indium gallium selenide (Cu_1.00In_xGa_1-xSe_2.00, CIGS) thin film solar cells have a wide application in semiconductor thin film batteries. The CIGS absorbing layer is the key of the thin film solar cell material. Therefore, it is of theoretical and practical significance to carry out researches in CIGS thin films. In this work, the CIGS thin films with special structures were prepared by using laser etching template. The copper thin film was firstly electrodeposited in aqueous solution with Laser etching template. The influences of temperature, current and concentration of copper sulfate on morphology …

An Electrochemical Investigation In The Anticorrosive Properties Of Silver Nanoparticles For The Acidic Corrosion Of Aluminium, H. A. Fetouh, B. A. Abd-El-Nabey, Y. M. Goher, M. S. Karam

Journal of Electrochemistry

The mass loss, potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) techniques were used for the determinations of the corrosion rates for aluminium in 1.0 mol·L^-1 hydrochloric acid (HCl) solutions both in the absence and presence of silver nanoparticles (SNPs) at 30 ℃. The protection efficiency was evaluated to be 96.4% for 0.014 g·L^-1 of the SNPs. It has been found that the capacity of the electrical double layer at the aluminium/solution interface was decreased with increasing the concentration of the SNPs, indicating that the SNPs were adsorbed at the aluminium surface. The Langmuir adsorption isotherm and the kinetic-thermodynamic …

Superhydrophobic Surface On Aluminum Alloy By Hydrothermal Method And Its Electrochemical Performance, Xiao-Hang Chen, Mo-Jing Chen, Yu-Lin Min, Qun-Jie Xu

Journal of Electrochemistry

Superhydrophobic film formed on a metal surface is an effective way for corrosion protection. In this paper, the superhydrophobic film was prepared on the surfaces of aluminum alloy by hydrothermally treating with a solution containing CeCl₃·7H₂O and CO(NH₂)₂ , and a self-assemble process. The electrochemical measurements and surface morphology results confirmed that the best superhydrophobicity and electrochemical performance could be achieved with the contact angle of 155.5^o after six hours of hydrothermal reaction. Furthermore, the inhibition efficiency of 99.6% was obtained in 3.5 wt% NaCl aqueous solution, indicating the excellent corrosion resistance …

Intrinsic Kinetic Properties Of Ternary Material For Lithium Ion Batteries Assessed By Single Particle Microelectrode, Yi-Min Wei

Journal of Electrochemistry

Electrochemical performances such as capacity, rate, cycle and thermal stability of the nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co) and manganese (Mn) ternary cathode material, LiNi_xCo_yMn_zO₂ (x + y + z = 1), are significantly influenced by the proportion of Ni, Co, and Mn elements. To obtain higher specific capacity, LiNi_0.6Co_0.2Mn _0.2O₂ (NCM622) and LiNi_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1O₂ (NCM811) with high amounts of Ni element were employed for the lithium ion batteries. By now, many studies have been focusing on the thermal and cycling stabilities of …

Preparation And Electrocatalytic Activity Of Nitrogen-Doping Tungsten Carbide Catalyst, Pian-Pian Yang, Li-Zhen Huang, Ying-Ying Li, Mei-Qin Shi, Chun-An Ma

Journal of Electrochemistry

Tungsten carbide (WC) is a promising electrocatalyst, however, its electrocatalytic activity is far inferior to Pt and Pt-group metal. In this work, nitrogen-doping tungsten carbide (WN|WC) catalysts with a nanoplate morphology were prepared via the tungsten nitride (WN) as the precursor and sodium tungstate as the tungsten source. The SEM and TEM results indicated that carbon atoms entered into the WN lattice to form the hexagonal close packed WC phase. In this way, an atomic scale heterostructure involving the closely linked interfaces between WN and WC was created . The XRD data confirmed that the cubic crystal structure of WN …

Deposition Mechanism And Coating Characterization For The Trivalent Chromium Electrodeposition In Sulphate Electrolyte, Hui Yan, Shuai-Shuai Huang, Fang-Zu Yang, Zhong-Qun Tian, Shao-Min Zhou

Journal of Electrochemistry

Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) were used to study the electrodeposition mechanism of trivalent chromium on a copper electrode in the novel sulphate electrolyte for thick trivalent chromium plating. The thickness, morphology, composition, microhardness, and structure, as well as the corrosion resistance in 3.5wt% NaCl solution of the trivalent chromium coatings were investigated by X-ray fluorescence gage, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), microhardness tester, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Tafel curve measurements. The results showed that the electrodeposition of trivalent chromium involved two consecutive one electron reduction steps. The first step, Cr³⁺ + e …

Applications Of Electrospinning In Lithium-Air Batteries, Yue Fu, Jin Wang, Hai-Yang Yu, Jing-Hua Tian, Rui-Zhi Yang

Journal of Electrochemistry

Lithium-air batteries have received increasing attention as the “ultimate batteries” due to their extremely high theoretical capacity and environment friendly. However, there are still many obstacles hindering the wide applications of the lithium-air batteries owing to the limitations of large charge-discharge over-potentials, poor Columbic efficiency and cycling performance. Exploring of high-efficiency, low-cost and eco-friendly catalysts is one of the vital issues for lithium-air batteries. Meanwhile, electrospinning techniques have been under substantial developments due to its simple fabrication process, high efficiency and production. This paper reviews the recent progresses in fabrications of various novel catalysts for lithium-air batteries with electrospinning techniques, …

Surfactant Driven Assembly Of Freeze-Casted, Polymer-Derived Ceramic Nanoparticles On Grapehene Oxide Sheets For Lithium-Ion Battery Anodes, Ali Zein Khater

Honors Undergraduate Theses

Traditional Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) are a reliable and cost-efficient choice for energy storage. LIBs offer high energy density and low self-discharge. Recent developments in electric-based technologies push for replacing historically used Lead-Acid batteries with LIBs. However, LIBs do not yet meet the demands of modern technology. Silicon and graphene oxide (GO) have been identified as promising replacements to improve anode materials. Graphene oxide has a unique sheet-like structure that provides a mechanically stable, light weight material for LIB anodes. Due to its structure, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) is efficiently conductive and resistive to environmental changes. On the other hand, silicon-based …

Interfacial Corrosion Of Copper And The Formation Of Copper Hydroxychloride, Mary Teague, Shengxi Li, Hongbo Cong

Williams Honors College, Honors Research Projects

Electrical circuitry is an industry, among many others, heavily using the element of copper. Ensuring the mechanical integrity of Cu is crucial, especially in salt environments, for the multifaceted composition of circuits. 4N NaCl solution (equilibrium concentration in ~84% RH) simulated this three-phase system. Rectangular Cu samples were partially immersed in both ambient and continuous lab air sparging atmospheres to understand waterline corrosion of the metal. Open circuit potentials (OCP) were continuously taken during the immersion testing for a maximum of 5 days. A scanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS), Raman spectroscopy, and 3-D …

Preparation Of Nis2 Nanosheet And Its Application In Asymmetric Supercapacitor, Yuan-You Wang, Ya-Nan Liu, Dang-Qin Jin

Journal of Electrochemistry

In this work, the NiS₂ nanosheets have been synthesized using Ni(OH)₂  as a precursor through a sacrificial template method. The microstructure and chemical composition of as-prepared NiS₂ were characterized by XRD, EDS, BET, SEM and TEM techniques. The results showed that both Ni(OH)₂  and NiS₂  were composed of nanoplates. The electrochemical tests revealed that NiS₂ exhibited the high specific capacitance of 1067.3 F•g^-1 at a current density of 1 A•g^-1 and excellent rate performance. Furthermore, in order to evaluate the practical application of NiS₂, an asymmetric supercapacitor, NiS₂ as …

Electroactivities Of Pd/Fe3O4-C Catalysts For Electro-Oxidation Of Methanol, Ethanol And Propanol, Tao Zou, Qing-Feng Yi, Yuan-Yuan Zhang, Xiao-Ping Liu, Guo-Rong Xu, Hui-Dong Nie, Xiu-Lin Zhou

Journal of Electrochemistry

Development of palladium (Pd) catalysts with high electroactivity for alcohol oxidation is significant for alcohol fuel cells. In this work, Pd nanoparticles were formed by sodium borohydride (NaBH₄) reduction method and subsequently deposited on the surface of carbon supported ferriferrous oxide (Fe₃O₄/C) composites to obtain the Pd/Fe₃O₄-C catalysts with different Fe₃O₄ loadings. Their transmission electron microscopic (TEM) images show that the Pd nanoparticles were uniformly dispersed on the Fe₃O₄/C. Electroactivities of the prepared Pd/Fe₃O₄-C catalysts toward oxidations of C1-C3 …

Kinetics And Mechanism Toward Electrochemical Reductions Of Sodium Bromide And Methanol Over Iron Electrodes, Qun Liao, Shu-Feng Zhang, Wen-Hua Leng

Journal of Electrochemistry

It is of technological value and scientific interest to the electro-synthesis of ferrocene, conversion of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and organic electro-synthesis in non-aqueous solutions by investigating the kinetics and mechanism toward electrochemical reductions of sodium bromide (NaBr) and methanol over iron electrodes. However, few reports in the related researches are available. In this article, the kinetics and mechanism toward electrochemical reductions of NaBr and methanol over iron electrodes were examined in detail by carrying out the polarization curve and electrochemical impedance spectroscopic measurements. The results showed that methanol was the reactant, while Na⁺ ions were functioned only …

Effect Of Peg-Coating On Properties Of Lithium-Sulfur Battery Cathode Material Containing Carbon Fiber Conductive Agent, Jie-Cheng Tan, Yan-Hong Tian, Xue-Jun Zhang, Kai-Le Fan

Journal of Electrochemistry

The composite materials contained high modulus carbon fiber (HMCF) were successfully prepared by employing a ball-milling process based on the coating treatment of polyethylene glycol (PEG), and their structures and morphologies were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) techniques．The influences of PEG content on sulfur cathode capacity, cycle stability and rate performance were systematically studied. It was found that by the pre-coating of PEG, the cathode exhibited the high initial discharge specific capacity of 1312.5 mAh⋅g^-1 at a current rate of 0.2C, and the reversible discharge capacity of 650 mAh⋅g …

Capacity Fading Analyses Of Lini0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2And Lini0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2/Lifepo4 Cathode Materials For Lithium-Ion Battery, Yi Hu, Xiang-Zhu He, Zhong-De Deng, Ling-Yong Kong, Wei-Li Shang

Journal of Electrochemistry

The LiNi _0.5Co _0.2Mn _0.3O₂/LiFePO₄ (NMC532/LFP) composite cathode material for lithium-ion battery was prepared by wet ball-milling. The capacity fading behaviors of LiNi _0.5Co _0.2Mn _0.3O₂ (NMC532) and LiNi _0.5Co _0.2Mn _0.3O₂/LiFePO₄ (NMC532/LFP) were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), charge/discharge and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) tests. The results indicated that the capacity retention values of NMC532/LFP were 97.80% and 86.48%, respectively, after 50 cycles and 60℃ high temperature storage. The NMC532/LFP exhibited better cycle performance and high temperature storage performance. …

Cobalt-Based Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Non-Noble Metal Catalysts For Oxygen Reduction Reaction, Meng-Xiu Jiang, Jing Zhang, Yue-Hua Li, Rong Zhang

Journal of Electrochemistry

Transition metal-nitrogen co-doped carbon catalysts have attracted significant attention because of their reasonable activity and remarkable selectivity toward oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) as cathodic reaction in fuel cells. However, the role of transition metal in the active sites of the catalysts still is uncertain. In this work, the Co_x-N_y/C-T catalysts were prepared with BP2000 as a carbon source, urea (Ur) as a nitrogen source and Co(OAc)₂•4H₂O as a metal precursor by a simple chemical method. Meanwhile, in order to optimize the ORR activity, the catalysts were synthesized with different amounts of Co …

Core-Shell Pd@Pt Ultrathin Nanowires As Durable Oxygen Reduction Electrocatalysts, Xin Wang, Yun-Jie Xiong, Liang-Liang Zou, Qing-Hong Huang, Zhi-Qing Zou, Hui Yang

Journal of Electrochemistry

This paper describes a simple CO-assisted reduction approach for the controllable synthesis of ultrathin Pd nanowires along the one-dimensional (1D) direction. Ultrathin Pt films from one to several atomic layers were successfully decorated onto ultrathin Pd nanowires by utilizing Cu UPD deposition, and followed by in-situ redox replacement reaction of UPD Cu by Pt. The core–shell structure and composition of the Pd@Pt ultrathin nanowires have been verified using transmission electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry. The core–shell Pd@Pt ultrathin nanowires exhibited comparative electrocatalytic activity and improved durability for the oxygen reduction reaction in comparison with commercial Pt black. The …

Effect Of Allyl Thiourea On Nickel Electrodeposition From Solution Containing Ammonia And Chloride, Ya-Ning He, Liang Yuan, Zhi-Ying Ding, Shi-Jun Liu

Journal of Electrochemistry

The effects of allylthiourea (ATU) concentration on the cathodic polarization behaviour, nucleation and surface morphology of nickel electrodeposited on the glassy carbon electrode from ammonia-ammonium chloride-water (NH₃-NH₄Cl-H₂O) solutions were investigated by cyclic voltammogry, cathodic polarization and current transient methods. The results revealed that the addition of ATU inhibited nickel deposition, which was enhanced with an increase in ATU concentration from 5 to 50 mg•L^-1. The initial deposition kinetics corresponded to a model including instantaneous nucleation and diffusion controlled growth. In the presence of ATU, the initial nucleation of nickel electrocrystallisation remained unchanged. …

Effects Of Jet Milling And Classifying Process On The Performance Of Lifepo4/C In Full Batteries, Xing-Liang Liu, Mao-Ping Yang, Wei-Wei Wang, Yong Cao

Journal of Electrochemistry

The carbon coated lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄/C) composite cathode material was prepared by using iron phosphate process. The effects of jet milling and classifying process on the electrochemical performance of LiFePO₄/C cathode material in full batteries were investigted. Scanning electron microscopic analyses suggested that the globose secondary particles were crustily crushed during the jet milling and classifying process, which would further result in lower tap density and carbon content. The LiFeP₄/C composite cathode materials with different physical characteristics were further tested in full batteries to evaluate the electrochemical properties. The results showed no obvious …

Engineering The Electrochemical Capacitive Properties Of Activated Carbon By Correct Selection Of Ionic-Liquid Electrolytes, Qiu-Hong Zhang, Bao-Shou Shen, Song-Lin Zuo, Xin-Yu Wei

Journal of Electrochemistry

In order to improve the electrochemical capacitive properties and to apply coconut shell activated carbon (AC) serving as electrode materials in ionic liquid (IL)-based supercapacitor (SC), the coconut shell AC material was re-activated using a steam as an activating agent in this work, forming a secondary AC (W-AC). The results showed that the specific capacitance of the W-AC electrode was much larger than that of the raw activated carbon electrode (R-AC) in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([EMIM]BF₄). The electrochemical techniques including cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic charge/discharge (GCD) measurement, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were used to systematically study the capacitive …

Applications Of N-Methyl-N-Butyl-Pyrrolidinium Bromide And N-Methyl-N-Ethyl-Pyrrolidinium Bromide In Zn-Br Flow Batteries, Qi Zhang, Miao-Miao Zhang, Lin Meng

Journal of Electrochemistry

It is extremely important for battery performance and safety in Zn-Br flow battery to use quaternary ammonium salts as complex agents for bromine. In this work, the effects of electrolyte compositions and concentrations on the electrode reactions and battery performances were studied in the absence and presences of N-methyl-N-ethyl-pyrrolidinium bromide (MEP) or N-methyl-N-butyl-pyrrolidinium bromide (MBP). The conductivities in the electrolytes containing different constitutions and concentrations were measured by EIS method. The charge-discharge performance for the battery and the complex ability for bromine in different electrolytes were also investigated. The results showed that the electrolyte containing MBP was better than that …

Effect Of Fe2+/Fe3+Interconvertion On Reduction Behavior Of Fe3+ In Acidic Electrolytes, Jian-Xin Qin, Feng Lin, Wen-Ping Liu, Chao Chen, Meng-De Ren

Journal of Electrochemistry

The influences of ferrous/ferric (Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺) interconvertion on electrochemical reduction and electrode reaction of Fe³⁺ were investigated by using linear sweep voltammetry, potentiostatic method and cyclic voltammetry (CV) in acidic electrolytes containing chloride ion (Cl^-) and sulfate ion (SO₄^2-). It was shown that the reduction process of Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺ would take place in two independent stages: (1) the reduction of Fe³⁺ to Fe²⁺ at E=0.35V and (2) the co-precipitation of Fe²⁺ by forming Fe(OH)₂ (E≤-0.3 V) instead of Fe. The major effect of Fe^{2+ …}

Effect Of Calcium On Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance Of Bridge Steel, Dong-Liang Li, Gui-Qin Fu, Miao-Yong Zhu

Journal of Electrochemistry

The corrosion behavior of bridge steel in simulated hot and humid industrial-marine atmosphere was investigated by mass loss analysis, XRD, SEM, electrochemical methods and a wet/dry alternate immersion corrosion test using 0.1 mol•L^-1 NaCl+0.01 mol•L^-1 NaHSO₃ solutions. The corrosion depth (W) of experimental steels before and after calcium treatment versus time (t) curves showed a good agreement with the power function of W=Atⁿ. The corrosion products were mainly composed of amorphous phase and a small amount of crystals including α-FeOOH, β-FeOOH, γ-FeOOH and Fe₃O₄. Trace calcium could promote the formation of …

Synthesis And Characterization Of Thermoresponsive Hydrogels Based On N-Isopropylacrylamide Crosslinked With 4,4′-Dihydroxybiphenyl Diacrylate, Shuo Tang, Martha Floy, Rohit Bhandari, Manjula Sunkara, Andrew J. Morris, Thomas D. Dziubla, J. Zach Hilt

Chemical and Materials Engineering Faculty Publications

A novel crosslinker [4,4′-dihydroxybiphenyl diacrylate (44BDA)] was developed, and a series of temperature-responsive hydrogels were synthesized through free radical polymerization of N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAAm) with 44BDA. The temperature-responsive behavior of the resulting gels was characterized by swelling studies, and the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of the hydrogels was characterized through differential scanning calorimetry. Increased content of 44BDA led to a decreased swelling ratio and shifted the LCST to lower temperatures. These novel hydrogels also displayed resiliency through multiple swelling–deswelling cycles, and their temperature responsiveness was reversible. The successful synthesis of NIPAAm-based hydrogels crosslinked with 44BDA has led to a …

Artificial Olfactory System For Multi-Component Analysis Of Gas Mixtures., Alexander Aleksandrovich Larin

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Gas analysis is an important part of our world and gas sensing technology is becoming more essential for various aspects of our life. A novel approach for gas mixture analysis by using portable gas chromatography in combination with an array of highly integrated and selective metal oxide (MOX) sensors has been studied. We developed a system with small size (7 x 13 x 16 inches), low power consumption (~10 W) and absence of special carrier gases designed for portable field analysis (assuming apriori calibration). Low ppb and even sub-ppb level of detection for some VOCs was achieved during the analysis …

Investigating Scalable Manufacturing Of High-Conductivity Wires And Coatings From Ultra-Long Carbon Nanotubes, Pouria Khanbolouki

Mechanical Engineering ETDs

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are a promising candidate for next generation of electrical wirings and electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding materials due to their exceptional mechanical and electrical properties. Wires and coatings from ultralong nanotubes that are highly crystalline, well-aligned and densely packed can achieve this goal. High-performance CNT conductors will be relatively lightweight and resistant to harsh conditions and therefore can potentially replace current conductors in many industries including aerospace, automotive, gas and oil.

This thesis investigates a new manufacturing approach, based on conventional solution coating and wire drawing methods, to fabricate high conductivity wires and coatings from ultra-long carbon nanotubes. …

Superconductivity At Т≈200 K In Bismuth Cuprates Synthesized Using Solar Energy, J. Chigvinadze, Juana Acrivos, S. Ashimov, D. Gulamova, G. Donadze

Faculty Publications, Chemistry

When investigating low-frequency (0.1 Hz) oscillations of multiphase high-temperature cuprate superconductors (HTCS) Bi1,7Pb0,3Sr2Ca(n-1)CunOy (n=2-30), a wide attenuation peak (ΔT~100 К) with a maximum at Т≈200 К was detected. This peak was particularly pronounced in field cooling (FC) experiments, i.e. after abrupt cooling of the sample in the external magnetic field at the temperature Т<Тс with subsequent slow warming up to room temperature with invariance of the applied field. The attenuation peak height depended on the preliminaryorientation (before cooling) of the samples θ in the measured permanent magnetic field Н. On the one hand, it is well known that, after the FC procedure and subsequent slow warming up, at the temperatures close to the critical temperature Тс, the attenuation peak associated with “melting” of the Abrikosov frozen vortex structure and its disappearance at Т >Тс is detected in monophase samples. At the same time, in most multiphase bismuth HTCS samples, synthesized using solar energy and superfast quenching of the melt, the attenuation peak with the maximum at Т≈200 К was observed.Depending on the conditions of synthesis, the attenuation peak could …

Special Issue On Supercapacitors, Xiao-Gang Zhang

Journal of Electrochemistry

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Strategies To Enhance Energy Density For Supercapacitors, Jun-Wei Lang, Xu Zhang, Ru-Tao Wang, Xing-Bin Yan

Journal of Electrochemistry

The biggest advantage of supercapacitor lies in not only the excellent pulse and fast charging-discharging performance, but also the characteristics of long cycle life and wide operating temperature window with no pollution. However, the energy density of supercapacitor is low. In this paper, the working principle, the development status, defects and improvement method of supercapacitors are introduced. Based on the research workes of the supercapacitors with high energy density in our group, combined with the literature reports in recent years, the strategies to promote the energy density of supercarpacitors will be focused. The strategies for the enhancement of energy density …

Porous Carbon Materials Produced By Koh Activation For Supercapacitor Electrodes, Jiang-Lin Ye, Yan-Wu Zhu

Journal of Electrochemistry

Porous carbon materials with high specific surface area and excellent conductivity have wide applications in supercapacitor electrodes. Much effort has been made to synthesize and tailor the microstructures of porous carbon materials via various activation procedures (physical and chemical activations). In particular, the chemical activation using potassium hydroxide (KOH) as an activating reagent is promising because of the well-defined micropore size distribution and ultrahigh specific surface area up to 3000 m²·g^-1 of the resulting porous carbons. Based mainly on the previous works taken by the authors and collaborators in the field, we have summarized the activation mechanism …

Recent Advances On Carbon And Transition Metallic Compound Electrodes For High-Performance Supercapacitors, Dun Lin, Xi-Yue Zhang, Yin-Xiang Zeng, Ming-Hao Yu, Xi-Hong Lu, Ye-Xiang Tong

Journal of Electrochemistry

Supercapacitors (SCs) have stimulated intensive interests for their promising applications in electric vehicles and portable electronics, etc. Electrode material is the most important key component of SCs, which vastly determines the performance of SCs. Carbon and transition metallic compound materials have attracted considerable attention and been widely explored as electrode materials. However, the insufficient capacitance of carbon materials and unsatisfactory conductivity and cyclic stability of transition metallic compounds severely limit their implementation as robust SC electrodes. Herein, we highlight our recent efforts to boost the capacitive performance of carbon and metal oxide/nitride electrodes by rationally structural and componential design. The …