Chemistry Commons^™

Electrodeposition Of Gallium Nitride_Unraveling The Role Of Precursors, Deposition Conditions, And Substrate Effects For Semiconductor Applications, Mauricio Azier Leyva Aranzabal

Open Access Theses & Dissertations

Gallium nitride (GaN) is a wide-bandgap semiconductor noted for its remarkable optoelectronic and structural characteristics, rendering it a potential material for high-power, high-frequency, and optoelectronic device applications. This dissertation investigates the electrochemical synthesis of GaN thin films by potentiostatic and galvanostatic electrodeposition techniques using aqueous solutions of gallium nitrate (Ga(NO3)3), ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), and auxiliary agents like potassium nitrate and urea. The main aim is to examine the essential elements affecting nitrogen incorporation and film shape while assessing electrochemical performance on various conductive substrates.A thorough investigation was performed to evaluate the impacts of electrodeposition duration, electrolyte pH, precursor molar concentrations, …

Toxicity And Biodegradability Of Novel Boronium Vs Conventional Ammonium-Based Antimicrobial Compounds In Wastewater Treatment Systems, Noor Shalan

Honors Theses

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are highly effective as disinfectants, herbicides, and pesticides; thus, overuse causes elevated levels of residual toxicity in domestic and industrial wastewater. QACs can be toxic to essential bacteria breaking down pollutants in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and can remain untreated in effluent, harming the environment, and contributing to antibiotic resistance, posing risks to human health. Novel boronium-based antimicrobial compounds have demonstrated efficacy in eliminating bacteria, fungi, and viruses. If the boronium compounds exhibit lower residual toxicity, they could offer a promising alternative to QACs. Because these compounds are still in development, their potential toxicity to the …

Development Of Porous Separators For Lithium-Ion Batteries Via 3d Printing And Thermally Induced Phase Separation, Abraham Enchinton

Open Access Theses & Dissertations

Additive manufacturing processes allow the development of custom-shape rechargeable batteries, but research in custom filaments for fused deposition modeling (FDM) of battery separators has remained limited until now. This study discusses the development and optimization of a composite thermoplastic filament feedstock to 3D print separator membranes. A number of post-processing steps - leveraging the thermally induced phase separation (TIPS) of the composite filament - are introduced in tandem with FDM to promote microporosity formation through the removal of the sacrificial diluent phase within 3D printed samples. Three distinct compositions of varying polymer/diluent ratios were developed and thoroughly investigated through thermogravimetric …

Volume 16, Maggie Duncan, Madeline Little, Alicia Hoffman, Megan Livesay, Gabrielle Quaresma, Serenity Allen, Laina Pfountz, Ainslie Allred, Sabrina Robles, Nicholas J. Duellman, Trinity L. Deguzman, Melissa H. Savage, Margaret Dudley, Jocelyn Escobar, Olivia Hildreth, Olivia Hopkins, Benjamin Gettier, Lee Kassay, Jade Riddle, Ashley Seiders

Incite: The Journal of Undergraduate Scholarship

Introduction Dr. Amorette Barber, Director, Office of Student Research

From the Editor Dr. Hannah Dudley-Shotwell

Artist’s Statement Maggie Duncan

On Mentoring Dr. Lee Millar Bidwell

The Hujum Campaign in Uzbekistan and its Consequences by Madeline Little

Wet Cupping Compared to Dry Needling for Treatment of Patients with Low Back Pain: A Critically Appraised Topic by Alicia Hoffman and Megan Livesay

Optimization of eDNA Air Sampling Via 3D Printed Fan by Gabrielle Quaresma

Beyond the Classroom: A Qualitative Study of Teacher Attrition and Retention by Serenity Allen and Laina Pfountz

The Treatment of Subacromial Impingement Syndrome with Platelet-Rich plasma Injections Verses …

Trenching And Compost Sustain Grain Yield Increases Over Nine Years On Deep Sands But At A Cost, David J.M. Hall, Tom J. Edwards

Grain and Other Field Crops Research Articles

Context. Crops grown on deep sands on the south coast of WA are limited by soil physical and chemical properties including compaction and poor nutrition. Aims. Crops grown on deep sands on the south coast of Western Australia are limited by soil physical and chemical properties including compaction and poor nutrition. Our aim was to determine what effects deep-placed organic amendments have on soil properties and crop production in a deep sand and whether such amendments are profitable. Methods. A long-term field trial was conducted over nine years (2015–2023) to investigate soil amendments including lime (0 and …

Utilizing Drainage Induced Pfas Enrichment In Cascade Generated Foam For Efficient Removal At Wastewater Treatment Plants, Ethan Samuel Coffin

Dissertations

Observed trends in municipal solid waste landfills reveal a distinct disparity between per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) composition entering in waste, mostly as diPAP and FTOH, and leaching out as FTCA and PFCA. These patterns are elucidated by compiling PFAS compositions in paper, textiles, and carpet, with known precursor transformations that generate FTCA and PFCA in leachate. Landfill leachate is commonly discharged to wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), which are ineffective at degrading PFAS and only serve as key conduits and discharge points for PFAS to the environment. Foam fractionation has been identified as a promising technology for concentrating and …

Salmon As An Ecological Pathway Of Contaminants Into Alaskan Food Webs, Miranda Brohman, Gretchen Roffler, Dimitri G. Giarikos, David Kerstetter, Amy C. Hirons

SECLER Data

Salmon are important fish taxa for humans and animals in hemiboreal and subarctic ecosystems. Trace elements and their marine food web bioaccumulation raises biomagnification and potential human health risk concerns. Sixteen trace element concentrations and their health risk assessments were determined in seven different tissues of two Southeast Alaska salmon species (chum, Oncorhynchus keta and pink, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha). Chum tissues had overall higher trace element concentrations compared to pink, which may be attributed to a difference of diets, generally longer-lived and spending more time in the open ocean. All kidney and liver samples exceeded the tolerable daily intake for …

Refining Chlorosulfonation Methods For The Synthesis Of A Perfluoroalkyl Arylsulfonimide (Pfsi) Monomer, Ainsley P. Foster, Ben Varney, Hua Mei

SPARK Symposium Presentations

Proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells are sources of energy that are clean, quiet, and highly responsive to changes in power needs, making them promising for use in automobiles and other portable power devices. The electrolyte of a PEM cell–the layer responsible for conductivity–is a polymer membrane, commonly consisting of perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acid (PFSA) polymers. In place of the PFSA polymers, perfluoroalkyl arylsulfonimide (PFSI) polymers are expected to improve the efficiency of PEM fuel cells with better stability and proton conductivity. The trifluovinylether (TFVE) aryl perfluorosulfonamide monomer is a new PFSI monomer proposed to fulfill these benefits once polymerized. The previous …

Atmospheric Water Generation: Bacterial And Inorganic Chemical Quality, Garrett E. Stanley

Theses and Dissertations

This study investigated the quality of untreated water collected from a vapor compression-based atmospheric water generator (AWG) operated outdoors in Dayton, Ohio. The concentrations of bacterial and chemical constituents were determined. The concentration of culturable bacteria was between 200 and 2300 CFU/mL, significantly higher than the reference levels described in recreational and drinking water quality guidance. Three discrete bacteria phenotypes were visually identified; two were yellow in color, rod-shaped and gram-negative while the third was milky white, circular, and gram-positive. Chemical analysis on 15 randomly selected samples revealed the presence of Barium (average = 0.16 mg/L), Magnesium (0.08 = mg/L), …

Biobased Acrylate Composites With Enhanced Strength For Additive Manufacturing, Nicole Wagner, Joseph Mcwherter

Engineering Faculty Articles and Research

With the expanding use of polymers in additive manufacturing, sustainable resins for use in vat photopolymerization are required to reduce their environmental impact. One promising approach to achieve this is to incorporate biobased fillers that replace the acrylates in photopolymer resins as ‘green’ alternatives. In this study, photopolymer composites consisting of a methacrylate resin with varying calcium carbonate powder content between 0 and 50 wt.% were investigated. A digital light processing technique was used to fabricate tensile test specimens for mechanical testing. Good printability, dimensional accuracy, and good interlayer adhesion were observed for composite resin formulations that incorporated calcium carbonate …

Tracing The Sources Of Nitrogen In Submarine Groundwater Discharge And Primary Producers In The Great South Bay Estuary, Nia H. Rene

Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects

The primary aim of this research was to elucidate the impact of submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) and septic effluent on coastal primary producers in the Great South Bay (GSB). The study focused on three main objectives: assessing the impact of precipitation patterns on SGD, tracing nitrogen sources into the GSB, and determining the impact of these nitrogen sources on coastal primary producers. The research revealed that current precipitation patterns significantly influence SGD across different seasons, highlighting the seasonal variability in groundwater discharge and its implications for nutrient loading in coastal waters. A suite of tracers was employed to identify and …

Verification Of Real-Time Smoke Simulations: A Case Study On Early Summer North American Wildfire Events, Daniel Bonilla

Pitzer Senior Theses

As wildfire intensity and frequency escalate in times of unprecedented climate change and severe droughts, it is important to enhance forecasting models that accurately and efficiently predict wildfire smoke movement. NOAA’s experimental Rapid-Refresh Forecasting System with Smoke and Dust (RRFS-SD) aims to improve upon the High-Resolution Rapid Refresh- Smoke (HRRR-Smoke), by extending the domain to include all of North America and incorporating new developments in physics and wildfire parameterizations. Our work explores the process of adding satellite Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) data, through AERONET, as an additional method of verification of the RRFS-SD experimental model. Using a case study on …

Geochemical Assessment Of Sediment Flux In A Sediment Core From A Tidal Flat In A Tropical Estuary, Olumide Ajulo

Master's Theses or Doctor of Nursing Practice

Sediment flux in estuaries is influenced by both natural processes and anthropogenic activities. Understanding the historical and current trends in sediment flux inputs and geochemical composition are essential for evaluating the estuary’s response to natural and human-induced changes and for developing effective environmental management strategies. The tropical Wouri Estuary in Cameroon receives water and sediment inputs from three main rivers draining urban, industrial, and agricultural areas, as well as different rock terrains. The complex inputs into the estuary can significantly affect sediment flux, consequently impacting the ecosystem. Thereby making an understanding of the temporal variations in sediment inputs in the …

Challenges Associated With Pfas Detection Method In Africa, Abdullahi Tunde Aborode, Ridwan Olamilekan Adesola, Ibrahim Idris, Waheed Sakariyau Adio, Segun Olapade, Gladys Oluwafisayo, Israel Ayobami Onifade, Sodiq Fakorede, Taiwo Bakare-Abidola, Jelil Olaoye, Adedeji Daniel Ogunyemi, Oluwaseun Adeolu Ogundijo, Olamilekan Gabriel Banwo, Adetolase Azizat Bakre, Peter Oladoye, Grace Adegoye, Noimat Abeni Jinadu

Chemistry & Biochemistry Faculty Publications

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of man-made chemicals that are widely present in many industries. Monitoring and analyzing PFAS in Africa is challenging due to the limited availability of mass spectrometry (MS), which is an essential technique for detecting PFAS. This review assesses the scope and impact of the shortage of mass spectrometry instruments in Africa, emphasizing the resulting limitations in monitoring environmental and public health threats. The review analyzes the existing PFAS monitoring, the accessibility of MS instruments, and the technical capabilities within the continent. This study suggests that fewer African countries have sufficient MS instruments, …

Rwanda's Natural Remedies: A Fresh Look At The Fight Against Malaria, Leandre Nsabimana Ndisanze

Pomona Senior Theses

Malaria remains one of the most devastating parasitic diseases globally, disproportionately affecting sub-Saharan Africa, where Rwanda continues to face high transmission rates and rising resistance to conventional interventions. Despite decades of control efforts, the emergence of drug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum and insecticide-resistant Anopheles mosquitoes threatens to reverse recent gains. This research responds to the urgent need for sustainable and culturally relevant alternatives by exploring the therapeutic potential of Rwandan traditional medicinal plants. These indigenous remedies, long used by local healers, offer an underexplored reservoir of bioactive compounds that may provide the basis for novel antimalarial drugs.

The central hypothesis of this …

Analysis Of Aerosols In The Asian Monsoon Anticyclone As Observed By The Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment, M. Lecours, R. Dodangodage, C. D. Boone, P. F. Bernath

Chemistry & Biochemistry Faculty Publications

During the Asian summer monsoon season, pollutants from the lower troposphere are transported through deep convection to the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. Surface pollutants such as CO are transported upward and trapped in the anticyclone during this unique atmospheric phenomenon. Associated with the anticyclone is a layer of enhanced aerosols located near the tropopause often referred to as the Asian tropopause aerosol layer (ATAL). The chemical and physical properties of aerosols in the ATAL are not yet fully understood as direct observations of the aerosols are limited. The Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment (ACE) is a satellite mission that provides high-resolution …

Cfd Analysis Of Hydrodynamic Cavitation Through An Orifice: Influence Of Different Inlet Pressures And Number Of Orifice Holes, Lemthong Chanphavong, Vongsavanh Chanthaboune, Keophousone Phonhalath

ASEAN Journal on Science and Technology for Development

Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) is considered an energy-efficient process with high potential for utilization in many chemical processes. This study presents a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis of cavitating flow through an orifice with a constant flow area. The Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations, coupled with turbulence and cavitation models, are employed to capture the complex flow behaviors. The effects of inlet pressures and number of orifice-holes on cavitation behavior are investigated. Result of the numerical simulation is validated with the existing experimental data from the literature. The CFD study revealed that cavitation initiates just behind the inlet edge of the orifice …

Synthesis And Characterization Of Eco-Engineered Hollow Fe2o3/Carbon Nanocomposite Spheres: Evaluating Structural, Optical, Antibacterial, And Lead Adsorption Properties, Islam Gomaa

Nanotechnology Research Centre

This work presents a facile mechano-thermal route for the synthesis of carbon-decorated, hollow, mesoporous α-Fe2O3 microspheres. Comprehensive characterization (XRD, XPS, FT-IR, SEM/EDX, TGA, zeta-potential) confirmed the formation of phase-pure hematite with nanoscale crystallites (~19 nm), substantial residual surface carbon (~40 wt%) consistent with Fe–O–C linkages, and a positive surface charge (+15.9 mV). The hierarchical hollow/mesoporous architecture enables fast ion transport and provides extensive interior binding sites, resulting in rapid Pb(II) uptake that reaches 92% removal in ≈15 min at pH 5.0. The adsorption follows a Langmuir isotherm (qmax ≈ 70.6 mg/g) and pseudo-second-order kinetics, indicative of chemisorption coupled to efficient …

Synthesis And Characterization Of A Biobased Polymer From Tung Oil And Pine Rosin & Characterization Of Polyhydroxybutyrate., Arijanet P. Osumah

College of Graduate Studies: Theses & Dissertations

This thesis presents two independents but thematically aligned research projects focused on the development and evaluation of sustainable polymers. The first involves the synthesis and characterization of a biobased polymer derived from tung oil and pine rosin. Tung oil, which is a triglyceride was chemically modified to produce tung oil diglyceride (TDG), which subsequently reacted with abietic acid-rich pine rosin to yield tung oil abietate (TOA), a biobased monomer. The TOA monomer was polymerized with butyl methacrylate (BMA) and divinylbenzene (DVB) using di-tert-butyl peroxide (DTBP) as a thermal initiator. The resulting polymer was thoroughly characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy …

A Potentially Fruitful Path Toward A Cleaner And Safer Environment: Mxenes Uses In Environmental Remediation, Ali Mohammad Amani, Milad Abbasi, Atena Najdian, Farzaneh Mohamadpour, Seyed Reza Kasaee, Hesam Kamyab, Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan, Hanieh Ardeshiri, Lobat Tayebi, Ehsan Vafa, Sarah Mosleh-Shirazi, Alireza Jahanbin, Saravanan Rajendran, Daniel Simancas-Racines

Electrical & Computer Engineering Faculty Publications

The rapid industrialization of the world has resulted in severe environmental pollution, necessitating the development of new materials such as pollution remediation. Two-dimensional (2D) MXenes have emerged as a promising family of materials due to their unique physicochemical properties, making them ideal for environmental remediation. The article sheds light on the new opportunities of MXenes in the removal of organic and inorganic contaminants, including organic dyes, pharmaceuticals, heavy metals, radionuclides, and gas pollutants. MXenes also show excellent performance in photocatalytic degradation, adsorption, and microbial inactivation with environmental safety. Moreover, their application in recovering valuable elements from waste streams is also …

Investigating The Thermal Stratification Patterns Of A Shallow Polymictic Boreal Shield Lake And The Effectiveness Of Models In Predicting Shallow Lake Thermal Profiles, Matthew Roberts

Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive)

Thermal stratification is a core process of lakes which plays a critical role in shaping the ecological dynamics of lakes, influencing major processes like nutrient cycling and oxygen availability. For shallow polymictic lakes, thermal stratification patterns present some unique differences due to the complex and variable nature of these lakes. In this thesis, I examined thermal stratification in a shallow polymictic lake in northwestern Ontario during the ice-free season of 2019 to investigate the frequency, duration, and driving factors of thermal stratification. The lake underwent 146 separate stratification events, with a median duration of 2 hours per event, with a …

Potential Health Risks From Trace Elements In Four Commercially Important Fish Species From The Gulf Of Alaska And Bering Sea Excel Data Sheet, Miranda Brohman, Dimtirios Giarikos, Amy Hirons

SECLER Data

Alaskan waters support a diverse array of fish species that are critical to apex predators and substantial commercial fisheries. Archived white lateral muscle tissue for capelin, herring, walleye pollock, and Pacific cod, from 1993 to 1996 were analyzed for 15 trace elements using induced coupled plasma mass spectrometry. This analysis serves as a proxy for assessing trace element concentrations in the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea. The highest concentrations of eight of the 15 elements (cadmium, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese, selenium, vanadium, and zinc) were found in fish from the central Gulf of Alaska, while capelin showed the …

Developing A Method To Identify Tyre Particles By Detecting Benzothiazole Via Gc-Ms, Emma Paull

The Plymouth Student Scientist

Tyre particles are a dominant source of microplastic pollution in our environment. However, their chemical and physical properties are poorly understood and no standardised methods for identifying and quantifying them exist. This study looked to develop a method to identify tyre particles using two tyre samples of differing particle sizes, fine (62 - 125 µm) and coarse (250 – 500 µm). Both samples underwent ultrasound-assisted extraction before being analysed via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in both full scan and SIM mode, using benzothiazole as a marker. Both samples were also analysed via particle size analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and …

Bioremediation Of Effluent Water In A Coal Ash Disposal Area: Optimizing Microbial Sulfate Reduction, Ryka Shea

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Coal combustion residues (CCR) pose a serious environmental threat, even long after they are disposed of in specialized landfills, due to their complex composition and potential for leaching into waterways. This study focuses on the issue of elevated sulfate concentrations at the Martin Lake Steam Electric Station (MLSES) A-I Disposal Area in Panola County, Texas, where CCR are disposed of in a permanent landfill. Currently, this site is exceeding its regulatory limit of sulfate concentrations in its effluent and is in need of a cost-effective and sustainable solution to this problem. This research utilized benchtop experiments to investigate sulfate reducing …

Optimization And Purification Of Magnesium Borides Fabricated By Combustion Synthesis And By High-Temperature Sintering, Miguel Joaquin Camarena

Open Access Theses & Dissertations

Hydrogen as a fuel provides several benefits over the use of fossil fuels; however, one challenge in utilizing hydrogen as an energy carrier revolves around its storage. Achieving sufficient volumetric hydrogen density in a storage solution will facilitate hydrogenâ??s adoption for use in both stationary and mobile applications. Solid-state hydrogen storage provides a promising pathway to solving this problem. However, the hydrogenation of these materials is characterized by slow kinetics and extreme thermodynamic conditions. Magnesium borohydride (Mg(BH4)2) is a promising material in hydrogen storage due to its reversible properties and a theoretical hydrogen capacity of 14.9 wt.%. To synthesize this …

Phytoplankton Responses To Changing Irradiance And Carbon Fertilization, Alison Siersma

Graduate Theses and Dissertations (2019 - present)

Phytoplankton play a crucial role in marine ecosystems due to their innate ability to fix carbon. As atmospheric CO2 levels continue to rise from fossil fuel combustion, the resulting increase in dissolved CO2 and the concurrent decrease in ocean pH are likely to impact the phytoplankton community. The response of phytoplankton to elevated CO2 can vary significantly among species and environmental conditions (e.g. light, temperature, nutrient availability). To address these variations, an experiment was conducted using a controlled photobioreactor system, maintaining high and low light, constant temperature, nutrient levels, and two pCO2 concentrations. This study focused on two regionally relevant …

Refining Chlorosulfonation Methods For The Synthesis Of A Perfluoroalkyl Arylsulfonimide (Pfsi) Monomer, Ainsley P. Foster, Benjamin Varney, Hua Mei

Science University Research Symposium (SURS)

Proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells are sources of energy that are clean, quiet, and highly responsive to changes in power needs, making them promising for use in automobiles and other portable power devices. The electrolyte of a PEM cell–the layer responsible for conductivity–is a polymer membrane, commonly consisting of perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acid (PFSA) polymers. Perfluoroalkyl arylsulfonimide (PFSI) polymers are expected to improve the efficiency of PEM fuel cells through optimal stability and proton conductivity. The trifluovinylether (TFVE) aryl perfluorosulfonamide monomer is a new PFSI monomer proposed to fulfill these benefits once polymerized. A six-step synthesis route was initially designed to …

Carbon Restoration Potential On Global Land Under Water Resource Constraints, Shouzhang Peng, César Terrer, Benjamin Smith, Philippe Ciais, Qinggong Han, Jialan Nan, Joshua B. Fisher, Liang Chen, Lei Deng, Kailiang Yu

Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Sciences Faculty Articles and Research

Ecosystem restoration is a critical nature-based solution to mitigate climate change. However, the carbon sequestration potential of restoration, defined as the maximum achievable carbon storage, has likely been overestimated because previous studies have not adequately accounted for the competition between ecosystem water demands for maximizing carbon sequestration and human water needs. Here we used a comprehensive process-based model combined with extensive land-use data and evaporation recycling accounting for land–atmosphere feedback to estimate the water requirements associated with ecosystem restoration. We found that achieving the carbon sequestration potential of restoration would significantly reduce global water availability per capita by 26%, posing …

Investigation Of Temperature, Solution Strength, And Applied Stress Effects On Cation Exchange Processes In Different Geosynthetic Clay Liner Products, Kendra Fuller

Master's Theses

An extensive laboratory test program was conducted to analyze and compare the cation exchange processes in three different varieties of sodium bentonite (Na-B) geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) over increased conditioning durations up to 32 days and investigate the effects of temperature, solution strength, and applied stress. The goal of this test program was to establish whether the variables of temperature, solution strength, and applied stress improved or degraded the engineering properties of GCLs in laboratory testing and municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill applications. The GCLs were conditioned in liquids of increasing ionic strength, using deionized water and 2, 50, and …

Application Of A Novel Plasma-Based Advanced Oxidation Process For Efficient And Cost-Effective Destruction Of Refractory Organics In Tertiary Effluents And Contaminated Groundwater, Itay Even-Ezra, Anat Mizrahi, Daniel Gerrity, Shane A. Snyder, Andrew Salveson, Ori Lahav

Civil and Environmental Engineering and Construction Faculty Research

Corona discharge is emerging as a promising advanced oxidation process (AOP) for the treatment of a variety of organic contaminants, including compounds that are not effectively destroyed by more common AOPs. This paper presents laboratory and field results describing the destruction of regulated and Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) compounds in tertiary treated wastewater effluent and contaminated groundwater during the operation of a novel hydro-non-thermal-plasma (HNTP) AOP system. The system generates a plasma discharge above the target water matrix, which emits an “electron wind”, ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, O_3(g) and hydroxyl radicals (•OH) into a relatively thin water layer. The synergism …