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2007

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Articles 121 - 150 of 248

Full-Text Articles in Psychiatry and Psychology

What Is A Cognitive System?, Gavan Lintern Jan 2007

What Is A Cognitive System?, Gavan Lintern

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

The theme for this year’s symposium, The Airspace as a Cognitive System, stimulates the questions; what is a Cognitive System and in what sense can we characterize the airspace as a cognitive system? I discuss these questions by reviewing ideas promoted in discussions of distributed cognition. I also contrast the concept of distributed with the similar concepts of shared and joint as the are discussed in the literature on cognitive systems, team training and situation awareness. I conclude that the notions of distributed cognition and joint cognitive systems offer considerable leverage for addressing the anticipated design challenges in airspace systems …

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A Comparison Of Risk Evaluation In Emergency Medical Services Helicopter Operation Regulations, Joseph P. Mclaine, Terry L. Von Thaden Jan 2007

A Comparison Of Risk Evaluation In Emergency Medical Services Helicopter Operation Regulations, Joseph P. Mclaine, Terry L. Von Thaden

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

This study represents a comparison of Helicopter Emergency Medical Services (HEMS) operations, between US Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs), and European Joint Aviation Regulations Operations Specifications. Presently, US regulations allow HEMS operators to conduct work under FAR Part 135, Commercial Aviation Operations, or under FAR Part 91, General Aviation Operations. This allows HEMS operators to accept a greater level of risk by substituting lower minimum procedural standards under FAR Part 91 than under FAR Part 135, and may be partly culpable for a higher rate of fatal crashes in HEMS operations conducted under FAR Part 91. In stark contrast, explicit criteria …

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An Overview Of The Tanker Airlift Control Center, Laura G. Militello, Patrick J. Vincent, Jesse A. Gaydon, Stephanie D. Swindler Jan 2007

An Overview Of The Tanker Airlift Control Center, Laura G. Militello, Patrick J. Vincent, Jesse A. Gaydon, Stephanie D. Swindler

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

The Tanker Airlift Control Center (TACC) plans, schedules, and tracks tanker, airlift, and aeromedical evacuation aircraft worldwide. This paper presents an overview of the TACC, presenting a snapshot of a constantly evolving, dynamic organization. Based on information gathered via interviews and observations conducted intermittently over a 12-month period, we present key characteristics of the TACC, TACC personnel, the organizational structure, and primary external collaborators.

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Myths Of ‘Naturalistic’ Decision Making In Aviation, Kathleen L. Mosier Jan 2007

Myths Of ‘Naturalistic’ Decision Making In Aviation, Kathleen L. Mosier

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

The increasing availability of sophisticated technological decision aids has altered the character of many ‘naturalistic’ decision-making environments. The aviation domain, once primarily ‘naturalistic,’ has evolved into a complex hybrid ecological system, combining probabilistic cues with highly accurate data and information. Despite these changes, many myths regarding the nature of the aviation environment and appropriate decision processes persist in aviation research, including the notions that expert intuitive judgment processes are sufficient in these environments, that analysis has no place in expert decision-making in dynamic environments, and that “intuitive” displays can eliminate the need for analysis. While completely naturalistic environments are conducive …

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Effectiveness Of Ground-Based Direct Pilot Warnings In Mitigating Runway Safety- Critical Human Errors, Peter M. Moertl, Kathleen A. Mcgarry Jan 2007

Effectiveness Of Ground-Based Direct Pilot Warnings In Mitigating Runway Safety- Critical Human Errors, Peter M. Moertl, Kathleen A. Mcgarry

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

Three simulation studies were performed to determine opportunities and limitations of ground-based direct pilot warnings to increase runway safety. Sixty pilots participated in these studies and operated a flight simulator under active and passive warning. Passive warnings facilitated crew awareness about their current location on the airport. Active warnings provided time critical information about runway status and other traffic to facilitate safety mitigation behavior by pilots. Participants completed simulation scenarios with opportunities for safety incidents that could be avoided if pilots achieved complete situation awareness. Warning effectiveness was measured by comparing numbers of encountered safety incidents between baseline and warning …

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Using Multi-Level Analysis To Model The Sources Of Variability In Workload Within And Between Sectors, Andrew Neal, Martijn Mooij, Scott Bolland, Tania Xiao, Peter Lindsay Jan 2007

Using Multi-Level Analysis To Model The Sources Of Variability In Workload Within And Between Sectors, Andrew Neal, Martijn Mooij, Scott Bolland, Tania Xiao, Peter Lindsay

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

Air-traffic control workload data was collected from 20 enroute radar sectors in northern Australia. Multi-level analyses were used to model the effects of traffic variables and airspace variables. The effect of aircraft count varied significantly between sectors. Aircraft count had a stronger effect on workload in sectors that typically have a larger proportion of aircraft on descent, and aircraft that are more closely spaced. Implications for the development of predictive workload metrics are discussed.

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Addressing Cognitive Learning Styles In Job Performance Aids, Kristie J. Nemeth, Laurie L. Quill, Justin Adams Jan 2007

Addressing Cognitive Learning Styles In Job Performance Aids, Kristie J. Nemeth, Laurie L. Quill, Justin Adams

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

Within the dynamic environment of active flightline maintenance, training is important to successful mission accomplishment. This paper will discuss the development and evaluation of a Job-Aiding and Training Tool (JATT) designed to enhance flightline learning by providing for a variety of learning preferences.

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Procedural Control In Atc Selection Tests To Predict Situational Awareness, Esther Oprins, Esther Geven, Emiel Veldhuijzen, Robert A. Roe Jan 2007

Procedural Control In Atc Selection Tests To Predict Situational Awareness, Esther Oprins, Esther Geven, Emiel Veldhuijzen, Robert A. Roe

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

At LVNL we have developed a new selection system, called DATCOSS, which should contribute to a higher output of qualified controllers from training. Two job sample tests are part of this selection system, specifically designed to measure the candidate’s potential for Situational Awareness by using simplified procedural control tasks. Grading takes half a day while AAPRO is a selective training module of five weeks. We examined the psychometric quality of both tests and the predictive validity of Grading for AAPRO. We may conclude that SA is sufficiently measured in the two job samples and that Grading results are rather predictive …

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The Use Of Physiological And Subjective Measurements On The Evaluation Of Cockpit Workload: A Comparison Between Simulated And Real Flight, Carlos Gomes De Oliveira Jan 2007

The Use Of Physiological And Subjective Measurements On The Evaluation Of Cockpit Workload: A Comparison Between Simulated And Real Flight, Carlos Gomes De Oliveira

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

The interest in determining pilot’s workload has increased, mainly when considering the human factors certification issues of new aircraft, where the high insertion of automation devices has been proposed to increase the mental workload (MW). The use of subjective and physiological measurements for pilot workload evaluation has been previously investigated in a simulator, and further tested during real flights, but no comparison has been performed between the results of such different situations. This study compared the data of subjective and physiological measurements obtained on the evaluation of MW in simulators, with those measured during real flights. Seven pilots performed six …

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Learn To Fly: Instructor And Student Communications In Instrument Flight Instruction, Adnan Okdeh, Gary Bradshaw Ph.D., Randy Brou Ph.D., Stephanie M. Doane Ph.D. Jan 2007

Learn To Fly: Instructor And Student Communications In Instrument Flight Instruction, Adnan Okdeh, Gary Bradshaw Ph.D., Randy Brou Ph.D., Stephanie M. Doane Ph.D.

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

It is proposed that one-on-one human tutoring is the best way to learn. Several models of tutoring have been developed to tutor students in subjects such as LISP, Literacy, and Algebra. In this study we investigate how a keytutoring model generalizes to tutoring 5 student pilots performing instrument flight in a simulator and in an airplane.

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Designing, Evaluating, And Training Flight Decks Of The Future, L. Ricardo Prada, Dr. Deborah A. Boehm-Davis, Dr. Victor Riley, Carl F. Smith Jan 2007

Designing, Evaluating, And Training Flight Decks Of The Future, L. Ricardo Prada, Dr. Deborah A. Boehm-Davis, Dr. Victor Riley, Carl F. Smith

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

Research into pilot cognition has shown that existing flight deck interfaces can hamper optimal performance on a number of important tasks. The goal of this panel is to describe recent efforts to understand how future flight decks might be designed, and how redesigns affect pilot training and performance. Examples and new experimental results will be provided from ongoing research and development efforts.

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Comparison Of Three Subjective Workload Metrics For A Free Flight Enviroment, Jessica G. O'Connell, Shawn M. Doherty, Ian A. Wilson Jan 2007

Comparison Of Three Subjective Workload Metrics For A Free Flight Enviroment, Jessica G. O'Connell, Shawn M. Doherty, Ian A. Wilson

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

One recent change being debated in the aviation community is to implement techniques, similar to free-flight which would allow pilots rather than air traffic controllers to retain more control of their flight paths, speeds, and separate themselves from other flights. By implementing ‘self-separation’, one of the positions most significantly affected is that of the air traffic controller due to changes in their job tasking in a ‘free flight’ environment. As the safe capacity of the National Airspace System is limited by the controller workload, it is essential to measure the workload changes accurately and in a way that can be …

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Human Factors Issues In Uas Training, Harry K. Pedersen, Laurence Gesell, Weston Pack, Nancy J. Cooke, James Hartman, Matthew Skinner Jan 2007

Human Factors Issues In Uas Training, Harry K. Pedersen, Laurence Gesell, Weston Pack, Nancy J. Cooke, James Hartman, Matthew Skinner

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

There is currently a surge in the utilization of Uninhabited Aerial Systems (UAS). Although the importance of the human in the system is often ignored with a focus upon the physical airframe, there are nevertheless numerous human factors issues that must be considered one of which is the training of operators. This paper will describe the inventory and assessment of existing U.S. military and civilian UAS operator training activities and programs conducted by the Arizona State University group of the UAV Alliance, Research, and Curriculum Development Partnership Program. The paper will then discuss various avenues of future research pertinent to …

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The Effects Of Sleep Deprivation On Flight Performance, Instrument Scanning, And Physiological Arousal In United States Air Force Pilots, Fred H. Previc, Nadia Lopez, William R. Ercoline Jan 2007

The Effects Of Sleep Deprivation On Flight Performance, Instrument Scanning, And Physiological Arousal In United States Air Force Pilots, Fred H. Previc, Nadia Lopez, William R. Ercoline

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

The effects of 34 hr of continuous wakefulness on flight performance, instrument scanning, subjective fatigue and EEG activity were measured. Ten fixed-wing pilots flew a series of 10 simulator profiles, and root-mean-square error was calculated for various flight parameters. Ocular scanning patterns were obtained by means of infrared tracking. The results showed that flying errors peaked after about 24-28 hr of continuous wakefulness, in line with peaks in subjective- and EEG-measured fatigue. Instrument scanning was very consistent across pilots but was mostly unaffected by the sleep deprivation.

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Analysis Of Learning Curves: Evaluation Of Assessment In Atc Training, Esther Oprins, Ernst Burggraaff, Hans Van Weerdenburg Jan 2007

Analysis Of Learning Curves: Evaluation Of Assessment In Atc Training, Esther Oprins, Ernst Burggraaff, Hans Van Weerdenburg

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

This paper describes the analysis of learning curves as part of the evaluation of a competence-based assessment system designed for air traffic control (ATC) simulator and on-the-job training (OJT) at LVNL. This system should contribute to an increased output from training by making learning processes more effective and efficient. Learning curves were derived from assessment results obtained in training. Patterns and individual differences in learning should be recognized in these (recalibrated) learning curves if the assessment system is well-designed, needed for adequate feedback and interventions. We divided the trainees into three groups and we compared their learning curves with patterns …

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Cockpit Technology For The Prevention Of General Aviation Runway Incursions, Lawrence J. Prinzel Iii, Denise R. Jones Jan 2007

Cockpit Technology For The Prevention Of General Aviation Runway Incursions, Lawrence J. Prinzel Iii, Denise R. Jones

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

General aviation accounted for 74 percent of runway incursions but only 57 percent of the operations during the fouryear period from fiscal year (FY) 2001 through FY2004. Elements of the NASA Runway Incursion Prevention System were adapted and tested for general aviation aircraft. Sixteen General Aviation pilots, of varying levels of certification and amount of experience, participated in a piloted simulation study to evaluate the system for prevention of general aviation runway incursions compared to existing moving map displays. Pilots flew numerous complex, high workload approaches under varying weather and visibility conditions. A rare-event runway incursion scenario was presented, unbeknownst …

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Going Below Minimums: The Efficacy Of Display Enhanced/Synthetic Vision Fusion For Go-Around Decisions During Non-Normal Operations, Lawrence J. Prinzel Iii, Lynda J. Kramer, Randall E. Bailey Jan 2007

Going Below Minimums: The Efficacy Of Display Enhanced/Synthetic Vision Fusion For Go-Around Decisions During Non-Normal Operations, Lawrence J. Prinzel Iii, Lynda J. Kramer, Randall E. Bailey

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

The use of enhanced vision systems in civil aircraft is projected to increase rapidly as the Federal Aviation Administration recently changed the aircraft operating rules under Part 91, revising the flight visibility requirements for conducting approach and landing operations. Operators conducting straight-in instrument approach procedures may now operate below the published approach minimums when using an approved enhanced flight vision system that shows the required visual references on the pilot’s Head-Up Display. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the complementary use of synthetic vision systems and enhanced vision system technologies, focusing on new techniques for integration and/or fusion of synthetic …

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Relationship Of Complexity Factor Ratings With Operational Errors, Elaine M. Pfleiderer Jan 2007

Relationship Of Complexity Factor Ratings With Operational Errors, Elaine M. Pfleiderer

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

This study is an examination of the relationship between controller ratings of static and dynamic sector complexity factors and the occurrence of operational errors (OEs) at the Indianapolis air route traffic control center (ZID). Principal Components Analysis (PCA) of the complexity ratings produced four components that were used as predictors in a multiple regression analysis of the number of OEs in the ZID sectors. Only Component 1 (climbing and descending aircraft in the vicinity of major airports) and Component 2 (services provided to non-towered airports) contributed significantly to the total proportion of variance explained by the model (R = .78, …

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Coherent Design Of Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle Operations And Control Stations, Amy R. Pritchett, Luis Nicolas Gonzalez Castro, Daniel Pierre Jacques Bruneau Jan 2007

Coherent Design Of Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle Operations And Control Stations, Amy R. Pritchett, Luis Nicolas Gonzalez Castro, Daniel Pierre Jacques Bruneau

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

Designing for UAV systems presents novel challenges, both in terms of selecting and presenting adequate information for effective teleoperation, and in creating operational procedures and ground control station interfaces that are robust to a range of UAV platforms and missions. We propose that a vital design objective is establishing coherence between these three features (function, procedures, and ground control station interfaces). Specifically, principles of coherent design are applied to the design of operational procedures and ground control stations (GCS) for uninhabited aerial vehicles (UAVs). Creating a coherent set of operating procedures, automatic functions and operators requires a systematic design approach …

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Extrapolation Of The Intersection Of Two Trajectories On A 2d Display: Evidence Of Biases, Charles Pompanon, Éric Raufaste Jan 2007

Extrapolation Of The Intersection Of Two Trajectories On A 2d Display: Evidence Of Biases, Charles Pompanon, Éric Raufaste

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

The aim of this study1 is to understand how people can extrapolate the collision point of two static stimuli representing aircraft on a 2D display. The task was to point out with a mouse cursor where the two aircraft’ trajectories would intersect. The presented configurations varied with angle and distance between the two stimuli. First, results show an effect of the distance and the angle between the two aircraft on the accuracy of the estimation of the collision point as well as on decision times. Secondly, participants tended to produce significantly more responses within the triangle formed by the two …

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Temporal Awareness In Atc: Literature Review And A Proposed Model, Esa M. Rantanen Jan 2007

Temporal Awareness In Atc: Literature Review And A Proposed Model, Esa M. Rantanen

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

Air traffic control (ATC) offers a paradigmatic example of a dynamic multi-task environment, placing both considerable and unique demands on the human controllers’ cognitive faculties. In particular, the notion of temporal awareness, which is argued here to be fundamental to both controller workload management and task performance, brings together many of the most central components of human information processing system. The temporal dimension of ATC offers thus both a rich task environment for the study of temporal awareness and the associated cognitive processes as well as affords their quantitative measurement for modeling purposes. This paper makes a case for focused …

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Preliminary Studies In Complex Military Iconic Symbology, D. W. Repperger, G. Thomas, J. Miller, D. Aleva, S. Fullenkamp Jan 2007

Preliminary Studies In Complex Military Iconic Symbology, D. W. Repperger, G. Thomas, J. Miller, D. Aleva, S. Fullenkamp

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

Two studies are reported on human performance using military visual iconic objects that increased in complexity by augmenting the number of dimensions. The first experiment demonstrates certain perceptual human biases that appear when attempting to correctly identify the state of a standard military icon feature. The second experiment, based on the results of the first experiment, revealed the expected information overload conditions that occur which give rise to exponential laws. The results of the second experiment provide preliminary guidelines on proper synthesis of new iconic objects in terms of their information complexity as well as how they are perceived by …

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Distributed Cognition At Cockpit: A Preliminary Study, Selma Leal De Oliveira Ribeiro Jan 2007

Distributed Cognition At Cockpit: A Preliminary Study, Selma Leal De Oliveira Ribeiro

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

Distributed Cognition is a theoretical structure, derived of cognitive science, which considers that the human knowledge and the cognition are not confined to the individual. In contrast, it is distributed to memories, facts or knowledge on the objects, individuals and environmental tools. The insertion of automated devices in different work stations had aimed at to reduce the operator workload and to minimize human error incidence. However, such initiative brought other questions, which demands great knowledge and abilities from the operator in the cognitive field. The main objective of this article is to present a preliminary cockpit analysis from Hutchins and …

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Crew Resource Management And Shared Mental Models, Rosemarie Reynolds, Elizabeth Blickensderfer Jan 2007

Crew Resource Management And Shared Mental Models, Rosemarie Reynolds, Elizabeth Blickensderfer

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

An interest in cognitive skill is beginning to appear in relation to crew resource management. One aspect of cognitive skill that has been examined in a variety of team domains is the notion of overlapping or “shared” mental models among teammates. While a growing amount of evidence on the relationship between shared mental models and team performance exists, only limited research has occurred in respect to the role shared mental models have in crew resource management. The purpose of this paper is to provide researchers and practitioners an understanding of shared mental models and their role in team performance, and …

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The Use Of Cream In The Investigation Of Human Error In Aviation Events: A Case Study, F. Rome, P. Cabon, I. Laporte-Wullens, S. Figarol Jan 2007

The Use Of Cream In The Investigation Of Human Error In Aviation Events: A Case Study, F. Rome, P. Cabon, I. Laporte-Wullens, S. Figarol

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

To investigate Human Factors issues of the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), a part-task simulation has been conducted. The analysis method employed was based on the CREAM principles and included the following steps: Predictive analysis, Simulations, Data analysis, Retrospective analysis. The project called "ARCADES", presented in this paper, concerns the errors identification and research of causes. The collective work based on CREAM is composed of four steps alternating between work in pairs and plenary session: the events identification and classification, consensus on the events to be analyzed, the retrospective analysis, and the mutual analysis. The work group was …

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Advanced Airport Surface Operations In Atm - Implications For Training Of End-Users, Jan Joris Roessingh Ph.D., Sonja Van Der Vliet-Perreijn M.Sc., Hinnerk Eißfeldt Ph.D., Brian Hilburn Ph.D. Jan 2007

Advanced Airport Surface Operations In Atm - Implications For Training Of End-Users, Jan Joris Roessingh Ph.D., Sonja Van Der Vliet-Perreijn M.Sc., Hinnerk Eißfeldt Ph.D., Brian Hilburn Ph.D.

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

To safely meet future traffic demands, several European airports (e.g. Paris CDG, London Heathrow, Amsterdam Schiphol, Frankfurt, Geneva) have recently introduced Advanced Surface Movement and Guidance Control Systems (A-SMGCS), and more airports are expected to follow suit in the coming years. A-SMGCS, with its HMI based on a visual display capable of depicting all the traffic at the airport, is more than merely a convenient addition to the outside visual view from the control room. It enables aerodrome controllers and Apron Management Service personnel (‘apron controllers’) to maintain a high rate of traffic movements, even during low visibility. At the …

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Beyond Electronic Flight Bag (Efb) Approval: Improving Crew Performance, Thomas L. Seamster Ph.D., Barbara G. Kanki Ph.D. Jan 2007

Beyond Electronic Flight Bag (Efb) Approval: Improving Crew Performance, Thomas L. Seamster Ph.D., Barbara G. Kanki Ph.D.

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

As operators evaluate and implement Electronic Flight Bags (EFBs), the emphasis has been on their operational approval and certification. This research provides data that demonstrate how an operator can aim beyond the limited objectives of the EFB approval process to improving crew performance. This paper reports on evaluation results that show how crews working with an EFB can not only equal, but can exceed the performance of those working with traditional paper documents.

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Evaluation Of The Seev Model Of Visual Attention Allocation In Atc Applications, Angela Schriver, Esa Rantanen Jan 2007

Evaluation Of The Seev Model Of Visual Attention Allocation In Atc Applications, Angela Schriver, Esa Rantanen

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

Visual attention allocation and scanning strategies of pilots have enjoyed sustained research effort for decades, resulting in many useful models and better understanding of the relationship between pilots’ eye movements and underlying cognitive mechanisms. However, much less research has been done on modeling air traffic controllers’ attentional processes and visual performance. Yet, such efforts are becoming increasingly critical in the light of changing tasks and task environments of controllers and increasing amounts of traffic under their responsibility. This paper will consider the SEEV (Salience, Effort, Expectancy, Value) model of visual attention allocation by Wickens and collaborators, which is an extension …

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Effects Of Imperfect Automation Support On Air Traffic Controller (Atco) Performance, Mental Workload, And Attention Allocation: Miss Vs. False Alarm Prone Automation, Ericka Rovira, Raja Parasuraman Jan 2007

Effects Of Imperfect Automation Support On Air Traffic Controller (Atco) Performance, Mental Workload, And Attention Allocation: Miss Vs. False Alarm Prone Automation, Ericka Rovira, Raja Parasuraman

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

This study investigated ATCo performance with reliable and imperfect automation support to examine whether automation benefits would accrue in a mixed equipage environment where ATCos were no longer responsible for freely maneuvering aircraft. Of particular interest was how types of automation imperfections would affect ATCo performance and attention allocation. Further, it was studied if automation imperfection would affect ATCo trust and attention allocation to freely maneuvering aircraft. With reliable automation ATCos detected conflicts better and sooner, compared to manual performance. Second, with imperfect automation primary task performance degraded significantly and ATCos felt more self-confident to perform without the automation when …

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Designing Decision Support For Mission Resource Retasking, Emilie Roth, Ronald Scott, Randall Whitaker, Rom Kazmierczak, Matthew Forsythe, Gina Thomas, Mona Stilson, Jeffrey Wampler Jan 2007

Designing Decision Support For Mission Resource Retasking, Emilie Roth, Ronald Scott, Randall Whitaker, Rom Kazmierczak, Matthew Forsythe, Gina Thomas, Mona Stilson, Jeffrey Wampler

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology - 2007

Command and Control (C2) operators too often need to find and mentally fuse data distributed across multiple sources to accomplish their work. We have been developing and applying work-centered design methodologies to develop advanced visualization and support tools intended to more effectively support C2 cognitive and collaborative work. This paper describes a work-centered visualization aid, called ReCaD, that we developed to support dynamic resource re-allocation during execution in a C2 airlift service. The project illustrates how workcentered design progresses from knowledge acquisition through analysis and design to development and evaluation, with particular attention focused on the cognitive requirements of and …

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