Medicine and Health Sciences | Open Access Articles

Ada News Convention Daily - 2006 Day 1, American Dental Association, Publishing Division

ADA News

The ADA News Daily (also called the ADA News Convention Daily) is a special edition of the ADA News published each day during American Dental Association Annual Sessions.

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The Impact Of Title Ix On Athletics Development In The United States, Jennifer Y. Mak

Management Faculty Research

Nothing has had as much of an impact in the history of public education as Title IX of the Education Amendment of 1972. The increase in the popularity of collegiate sports, especially the revenue sports (football, basketball), has made Title IX and Athletics a hot topic. However, many members of the Title IX generations do not have a clear picture or fully understand the true meaning behind Title IX. This paper tries to close this gap by explaining the relationship between Title IX and Athletics in a timeline format: the birth of Title IX in 1972; Title IX and Athletics …

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Transposon Disruption Of The Complex I Nadh Oxidoreductase Gene (Snod) In Staphylococcus Aureus Is Associated With Reduced Susceptibility To The Microbicidal Activity Of Thrombin-Induced Platelet Microbicidal Protein 1, Arnold S. Bayer, Peter Mcnamara, Michael R. Yeaman, Natalie Lucindo, Tiffanny Jones, Ambrose L. Cheung

Dartmouth Scholarship

The cationic molecule thrombin-induced platelet microbicidal protein 1 (tPMP-1) exerts potent activity against Staphylococcus aureus. We previously reported that a Tn551 S. aureus transposon mutant, ISP479R, and two bacteriophage back-transductants, TxA and TxB, exhibit reduced in vitro susceptibility to tPMP-1 (tPMP-1(r)) compared to the parental strain, ISP479C (V. Dhawan, M. R. Yeaman, A. L. Cheung, E. Kim, P. M. Sullam, and A. S. Bayer, Infect. Immun. 65:3293-3299, 1997). In the current study, the genetic basis for tPMP-1(r) in these mutants was identified. GenBank homology searches using sequence corresponding to chromosomal DNA flanking Tn551 mutant strains showed that the fourth gene …

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The Process Paradigm: Rethinking Medical Malpractice, Roger B. Dworkin

Articles by Maurer Faculty

No abstract provided.

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Use Of Quantitative Admissions Data To Predict Academic And Licensure Examination Performance Among Physical Therapist Students, Ralph Russell Utzman

Theses and Dissertations

Professional physical therapist education programs use a variety of measures of academic performance, aptitude, and interpersonal skills when selecting students for admission. Grade point averages (GPA) and scores on standardized tests, such as the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), are commonly used quantitative measures. The purpose of this study was to investigate the utility of these measures in predicting which physical therapist students will encounter difficulty in the academic program or in passing the National Physical Therapist Examination (NPTE). This study used a retrospective longitudinal design. A nationally representative sample of 20 programs was drawn from the population of physical therapist …

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Examining The Progression Of Disability Benefits Among Employees In The United States, Carolyn E. Danczyk-Hawley

Theses and Dissertations

The following project is a compilation of three separate articles all utilizing a database extracted from the UNUM/Provident Life Insurance Company, including all consecutive short-term disability (STD) claims filed with UNUM from January 1, 1994 to December 31, 1996 from claimants who were also insured for long-term disability (LTD) by UNUM. The resulting sample includes 77,297 claims.The results of these studies are part of a larger investigation that documented the Progression of Disability Benefits (PODB) phenomenon. PODB refers to the migration of workers with work-limiting disabilities through a system of economic benefits resulting in their placement onto Social Security Disability …

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Potential Of Vibrational Spectroscopy In The Diagnosis Of Human Tumours., Eoghan O'Faolain

Doctoral

Just fewer than 20,000 people are annually diagnosed with some form of cancer in Ireland and one in three people are likely to contract some form of cancer by age 74. With the number of cases increasing at an annual rate of 2%, the early detection and treatment of cancer is becoming increasingly important. Both IR and Raman spectroscopy offer the potential for real time, quantitative detection of cancer and even precancer. This study investigates the potential of Raman and Fourier transform infrared, both benchtop and synchrotron spectroscopies for the detection of cervical cancer. The tissue was classified and its …

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A Survey Of Foreign-Educated Nurses: Workforce Experience, Melissa Giegerich

Honors Projects

The United States (US) is currently undergoing a nursing shortage. As a result, many health care agencies in the US and around the world are turning to nurses educated in other countries to fill vacant positions. Despite the increased utilization of foreign-educated nurses, there is a lack of understanding of how these nurses transition into the US workforce. This study describes foreign-educated nurses who work in Illinois and the factors that affected their transition into the US professional nursing workforce. By focusing on nurses who were educated abroad and work in Illinois, this study will help Illinois nurses and Illinois …

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Pregnancy-Related School Dropout And Prior School Performance In South Africa, Monica J. Grant, Kelly Hallman

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Using data collected in 2001 in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, this working paper examines the factors associated with schoolgirl pregnancy, as well as the likelihood of school dropout and subsequent re-enrollment among pregnant schoolgirls. This analysis triangulates data collected from birth histories, education histories, and data concerning pregnancy to strengthen the identification of young women who became pregnant while enrolled in school and to define discrete periods of school interruption prior to first pregnancy. Given the increasing levels of female school participation in sub-Saharan Africa, our findings suggest that future studies will benefit from exploring the causal relationships between prior school …

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Baseline Survey: Summary Report Of District Khanewal, Pakistan Initiative For Mothers And Newborns (Paiman)

Reproductive Health

This summary report presents some of the key findings of a 2005 baseline household survey in Khanewal district, one of the ten districts in Pakistan that are the focus of the PAIMAN project. The Pakistan Initiative for Mothers and Newborns (PAIMAN) is a five-year project funded by the United States Agency for International Development. The project is committed to assisting the Government of Pakistan in implementing the full spectrum of interventions necessary to address maternal and neonatal health (MNH) issues. PAIMAN district survey results are presented individually for each of the ten districts. PAIMAN developed a monitoring and evaluation plan …

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Female Genital Mutilation In Kenya: Evidence Links Health Workers To Fgm, Population Council, Gtz

Reproductive Health

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a traditional practice that affects women and girls in several African countries. It is practiced in a variety of ways, classified by WHO into four broad types all found in Kenya. In some communities it is associated with passage into maturity; in others, it is considered a symbol of ethnic identity, a religious obligation, or a necessary prerequisite for marriage, either through symbolizing attainment of womanhood or as a means of preserving and demonstrating virginity. FGM is considered a harmful traditional practice because it may be associated with a variety of short- and long-term health …

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Safe Motherhood Applied Research And Training (Smart) Report 1: Project Overview, Gul Rashida, Peter C. Miller

Reproductive Health

Maternal mortality in Pakistan is believed to be quite high, at about 350–500 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births. Reducing maternal mortality is one of the major objectives of the Government of Pakistan. Interventions required to address maternal mortality include safe motherhood, which means a woman’s ability to have a safe and healthy pregnancy and delivery. The Safe Motherhood Applied Research and Training (SMART) project was an operations research project designed to develop and test interventions to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality in a predominantly rural district of Pakistan. The vast majority of maternal deaths are attributed to delays in …

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Characterizing Prevalence And Severity Of Depression In Coronary Artery Disease Patients In Bangkok, Thailand, Anna Yusim

Yale Medicine Thesis Digital Library

Numerous studies in North America, Europe and Australia have linked depression to increased risk of morbidity and mortality in coronary artery disease (CAD). Although the co-morbidity of depression and CAD is well documented in the western world, little work on the subject has been carried out in Asia. Differing depression presentations in Asia necessitate the use of culture-specific depression rating scales. This study sought to determine whether the correlation between CAD and depression documented in western countries also exists in an Asian nation: Thailand. It was hypothesized that rates of depressive symptoms were higher in Thai inpatients with either unstable …

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Finishing Therapy Well (Book Review), Kristina M. Kays

Faculty Publications - Psychology Department

Reviews the book, "Good Goodbyes: Knowing How to End in Psychotherapy and Psychoanalysis" by Jack Novick and Kerry Kelly Novick (see record 2006-05376-000). Deciding when to end clinical therapy and how to end it well can be a mystifying process. In "Good Goodbyes: Knowing How to End in Psychotherapy and Psychoanalysis", Jack Novick and Kerry Kelly Novick share insights from their vast combined experience to diminish the mystery of therapeutic closure. The book, which is firmly based in psychoanalytic theory, uses a question format to explore the many hows, whys, whats, and whens of termination. The authors outline treatment stages …

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Comment Mener Un Exercice De Couverture : Outil D'Évaluation Rapide De Programmes Et Services, Carey Meyers, Solene Lardoux

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Un exercice de couverture (EC) est un instrument d’évaluation simple, économique et rapide pouvant servir à profiler les personnes touchées par un prestataire donné, un groupe de prestataires ou des organisations partageant une clientèle commune dans une zone géographique particulière. Cet instrument a été mis au point pour assister les programmes de jeunesse, mais il peut également être utilisé par d’autres bénéficiaires ayant des services offerts en établissement ou en antenne. L’EC collecte les données relatives à différentes caractéristiques, y compris le sexe, la scolarisation, l’habitat, l’activité rémunératrice et l’état matrimonial des personnes bénéficiant d’un programme ou d’un service. Il …

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Como Conduzir Um Exercício De Cobertura: Uma Ferramenta Para A Avaliação Rápida De Programas E Serviços, Carey Meyers, Solene Lardoux

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Um exercício de cobertura (EC) é uma ferramenta de avaliação rápida, simples e de baixo custo que pode ser utilizado para se obter o perfil das pessoas atingidas por um determinado serviço ou grupo de prestadores de serviços1ou organizações com uma clientela comum atuando numa área geográfica definida. Esta ferramenta foi desenvolvida com o intuito de auxiliar programas de atendimento à juventude, mas a mesma também pode ser utilizada com outros beneficiários. Pode ser empregada para um gama de serviços, tanto os realizados numa clínica ou ambulatório bem como na comunidade. Um EC coleta dados sobre uma variedade de características, …

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Cómo Realizar Un Ejercicio De Cobertura: Una Herramienta De Evaluación Rápida Para Programas Y Servicios, Carey Meyers, Solene Lardoux

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Un ejercicio de cobertura (EC) es una herramienta de evaluación sencilla, rápida y de bajo costo que puede emplearse para perfilar quién está siendo alcanzado por un determinado servicio o grupo de proveedores de servicios u organizaciones con una clientela común que operan dentro de un área geográfica particular. Esta herramienta fue desarrollada para ayudar a los programas que ofrecen servicios a jóvenes; pero puede emplearse igualmente para otros beneficiarios. Se le puede utilizar en una gama de servicios, desde las que operan en instalaciones hasta las de alcance comunitario. Un EC recaba información sobre características diversas—que incluyen género, escolaridad, …

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Berhane Hewan ('Light For Eve'): A Program To Support Married And Unmarried Adolescent Girls In Rural Amhara Region, Ethiopia, Population Council

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Berhane Hewan (meaning “Light for Eve” in Amharic) is a program in rural Amhara region designed to assist unmarried girls by imparting the knowledge, skills, and resources they need to avoid child marriage as well as give support to adolescent girls who are already married. With support from UNFPA, DFID, and the Turner Foundation, the program is implemented by the Ministry of Youth and Sport and the Regional Youth Bureaus, with technical assistance from the Population Council. The program promotes functional literacy, life skills, livelihoods skills, and reproductive health education. In developing the project, the Regional Youth Bureau staff felt …

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Fewer And Better-Educated Children: Expanded Choices In Schooling And Fertility In Rural Pakistan, Zeba Sathar, Cynthia B. Lloyd, Minhaj Ul Haque, Mumraiz Khan, Monica J. Grant

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

This report presents the results of a longitudinal study of changing educational opportunities in rural Punjab and N.W.F.P. from 1997 to 2004. The purpose of the study was to answer two major research questions: what were the effects of changes in schooling opportunities in the community over the past six years on enrollment and attainment, and what were the effects on family planning and fertility behavior? This study builds on an earlier study undertaken in 1997. As noted in this report, the study is innovative in several ways: (1) it is longitudinal; (2) it combines consideration of three dimensions of …

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'She Knew Only When The Garland Was Put Around Her Neck': Findings From An Exploratory Study On Early Marriage In Rajasthan, Population Council

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

In India, despite several policy and program efforts, early marriage persists with considerable variation between and within states. Unraveling the complex drivers of early marriage in particular contexts requires careful site-specific diagnostic research. Whether and how these downward pressures on age at marriage are ameliorated by India's national and state efforts to foster later marriage is not well understood. As noted in this brief, research is required at the community level to understand the extent of actual implementation of various policies and programs intended to prevent early marriage and the extent to which such efforts have found acceptability among parents …

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Meeting The Health And Social Needs Of Married Girls In India: The First Time Parents Project's Implementation And Reach, Population Council

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

India has one of the largest populations of married adolescent girls in the world. Despite the high prevalence of early marriage and the distinct and predictable risks these girls and young women face, little is known about the lives of married young women, and little has been done to support them. In response, the Population Council, in partnership with Child in Need Institute and Deepak Charitable Trust, initiated the First-Time Parents project. This project developed and tested an integrated package of health and social interventions that would improve married young women's reproductive and sexual health knowledge and practices, and expand …

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Spending, Saving And Borrowing: Perceptions And Experiences Of Girls In Gujarat, Population Council

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Microfinance and savings programs that offer user-friendly and flexible savings schemes for women are increasingly being implemented in India, but such programs have been limited to adults. Although a number of programs have been implemented that aim to empower adolescent girls and young women, these have largely focused on enhancing life skills and awareness. The potential among young females to enhance control over resources through savings and use of other financial products in formal and informal banking institutions has rarely been addressed, either in research or through programs. As stated in this brief, the Council and the Self Employed Women's …

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Marriage And Motherhood: An Exploratory Study Of The Social And Reproductive Health Status Of Married Young Women In Gujarat And West Bengal, F. Ram, Ranjana Sinha, S.K. Mohanty, Arup Das, Aruna Lakhani, Nicole Haberland, K.G. Santhya

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

In India, sexual activity and childbearing among young women take place overwhelmingly within the context of marriage. Despite the high prevalence of early marriage, little is known about the lives of married young women, and few interventions have focused on supporting this group. In response, the Population Council, in partnership with Child In Need Institute in Kolkata (West Bengal) and Deepak Charitable Trust in Vadodara (Gujarat), initiated the First-Time Parents project aimed at developing and testing an integrated package of health and social interventions that would improve married young women’s reproductive and sexual health knowledge and practices, and expand their …

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Formation Of Partnerships Among Young Women And Men In Pune District, Maharashtra, Mallika Alexander, Laila Garda, Savita Kanade, Shireen J. Jejeebhoy, Bela Ganatra

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Young people in India face traditional age- and sex-stratified norms that espouse gender double standards. Premarital partnerships are taboo and anecdotal evidence suggests that in many settings in India, the hint of a romantic relationship or even social interaction between young girls and boys is sufficient to damage a family's reputation and/or result in accelerated arranged marriage, particularly for the girl. While there is a prevailing perception at the community level that in these circumstances, premarital partnerships are rare, there is a small body of literature that suggests that such partnerships are indeed formed and sexual relations experienced, among, typically, …

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Need For Cognition And Message Complexity In Motivating Fruit And Vegetable Intake Among Callers To The Cancer Information Service, Pamela Williams-Piehota, Judith Pizarro, Stephanie A. Navarro Silvera, Linda Mowad, Peter Salovey

Department of Public Health Scholarship and Creative Works

This field experiment examined the impact of an individual's need for cognition (NFC; the tendency to enjoy thinking deeply about issues), complex versus simple messages, and the interaction of NFC and message type on encouraging fruit and vegetable consumption. Callers to the Cancer Information Service of the National Cancer Institute (N = 517) were asked to participate in the experiment at the end of their call. Individual NFC was assessed, and participants were assigned randomly to receive a telephone message promoting fruit and vegetable consumption that was either complex and multifaceted or simple and straightforward. Similarly constructed brochures were mailed …

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The Impact Of Immunization On The Association Between Poverty And Child Survival: Evidence From Kassena-Nankana District Of Northern Ghana, Ayaga A. Bawah, James F. Phillips, Martin Adjuik, Maya Vaughan-Smith, Bruce Macleod, Fred N. Binka

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Research conducted in Africa has demonstrated consistently that parental poverty and low educational attainment adversely affect child survival. Relative poverty has a pronounced effect on the survival of children, even in a setting where nearly all families are poor. Results from the research presented in the working paper lend strong support to the United Nations’ goal of reducing excess childhood mortality among the poor by directing a particular focus on immunization. Findings in this working paper show that the adverse effects of poverty disappear and that the effects of educational attainment are reduced in survival models that control for immunization …

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Urban Versus Rural Mortality Among Older Adults In China, Zachary Zimmer, Toshiko Kaneda, Laura Spess

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

For some time, Chinese government policies have treated rural and urban areas very differently, and a by-product of China’s rapid development seems to be an even greater differentiation between urban and rural social and economic life. Over the next several decades, in part because of rapid fertility declines and in part as a result of mortality declines at older ages, China and other developing countries will experience enormous increases in the proportion of older adults and the proportion of the “oldest-old.” It is reasonable to expect that these age structure changes will alter the provision of health care, making an …

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The Implications Of Changing Educational And Family Circumstances For Children's Grade Progression In Rural Pakistan: 1997-2004, Cynthia B. Lloyd, Cem Mete, Monica J. Grant

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

This Population Council working paper assesses the effects of primary school characteristics, household characteristics, and recent household economic and demographic shocks on school dropout rates during the first eight grades in rural Punjab and North West Frontier Province, Pakistan. While grade retention has improved over the past six years, dropout rates for girls remain fairly high, particularly at the end of primary school (grade five). The results of this study show clearly the complementary nature of supply and demand factors in determining grade progression in rural Pakistan, particularly for girls. The results suggest that substantial improvement in the schooling environment …

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Providing New Opportunities To Adolescent Girls In Socially Conservative Settings: The Ishraq Program In Rural Upper Egypt, Martha Brady, Ragui Assaad, Barbara L. Ibrahim, Abeer Salem, Rania Salem, Nadia Zibani

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Out-of-school girls are among the most disadvantaged adolescents in rural Upper Egypt. Compared with girls attending school, they are more likely to be engaged in poorly paid farm work, more likely to be married early, and at greater risk for early childbearing and poor pregnancy outcomes. To respond to their situation, through the partnership of Caritas, the Center for Development and Population Activities, the Population Council, and Save the Children, the Ishraq program was designed: a holistic intervention to address the unmet needs of out-of-school adolescent girls. The pilot phase of Ishraq was launched in four rural villages of one …

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Late Marriage And The Hiv Epidemic In Sub-Saharan Africa, John Bongaarts

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

This Population Council working paper assesses the potential roles of late age at marriage and a long period of premarital sexual activity as population risk factors for HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa. The relationship between marital status and the prevalence and incidence of HIV is examined with ecological data from 33 countries in the region and with individual-level data from nationally representative Demographic and Health Surveys in Kenya and Ghana in 2003. The ecological analysis finds a significant positive correlation between HIV prevalence and the median age at first marriage, and between HIV prevalence and the interval between first sex …

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Full-Text Articles in Medicine and Health Sciences

Ada News Convention Daily - 2006 Day 1, American Dental Association, Publishing Division

ADA News

The Impact Of Title Ix On Athletics Development In The United States, Jennifer Y. Mak

Management Faculty Research

Dartmouth Scholarship

The Process Paradigm: Rethinking Medical Malpractice, Roger B. Dworkin

Articles by Maurer Faculty

Use Of Quantitative Admissions Data To Predict Academic And Licensure Examination Performance Among Physical Therapist Students, Ralph Russell Utzman

Theses and Dissertations

Examining The Progression Of Disability Benefits Among Employees In The United States, Carolyn E. Danczyk-Hawley

Theses and Dissertations

Potential Of Vibrational Spectroscopy In The Diagnosis Of Human Tumours., Eoghan O'Faolain

Doctoral

A Survey Of Foreign-Educated Nurses: Workforce Experience, Melissa Giegerich

Honors Projects

Pregnancy-Related School Dropout And Prior School Performance In South Africa, Monica J. Grant, Kelly Hallman

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Baseline Survey: Summary Report Of District Khanewal, Pakistan Initiative For Mothers And Newborns (Paiman)

Reproductive Health

Female Genital Mutilation In Kenya: Evidence Links Health Workers To Fgm, Population Council, Gtz

Reproductive Health

Safe Motherhood Applied Research And Training (Smart) Report 1: Project Overview, Gul Rashida, Peter C. Miller

Reproductive Health

Characterizing Prevalence And Severity Of Depression In Coronary Artery Disease Patients In Bangkok, Thailand, Anna Yusim

Yale Medicine Thesis Digital Library

Finishing Therapy Well (Book Review), Kristina M. Kays

Faculty Publications - Psychology Department

Comment Mener Un Exercice De Couverture : Outil D'Évaluation Rapide De Programmes Et Services, Carey Meyers, Solene Lardoux

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Como Conduzir Um Exercício De Cobertura: Uma Ferramenta Para A Avaliação Rápida De Programas E Serviços, Carey Meyers, Solene Lardoux

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Cómo Realizar Un Ejercicio De Cobertura: Una Herramienta De Evaluación Rápida Para Programas Y Servicios, Carey Meyers, Solene Lardoux

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Berhane Hewan ('Light For Eve'): A Program To Support Married And Unmarried Adolescent Girls In Rural Amhara Region, Ethiopia, Population Council

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Fewer And Better-Educated Children: Expanded Choices In Schooling And Fertility In Rural Pakistan, Zeba Sathar, Cynthia B. Lloyd, Minhaj Ul Haque, Mumraiz Khan, Monica J. Grant

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

'She Knew Only When The Garland Was Put Around Her Neck': Findings From An Exploratory Study On Early Marriage In Rajasthan, Population Council

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Meeting The Health And Social Needs Of Married Girls In India: The First Time Parents Project's Implementation And Reach, Population Council

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Spending, Saving And Borrowing: Perceptions And Experiences Of Girls In Gujarat, Population Council

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Marriage And Motherhood: An Exploratory Study Of The Social And Reproductive Health Status Of Married Young Women In Gujarat And West Bengal, F. Ram, Ranjana Sinha, S.K. Mohanty, Arup Das, Aruna Lakhani, Nicole Haberland, K.G. Santhya

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Formation Of Partnerships Among Young Women And Men In Pune District, Maharashtra, Mallika Alexander, Laila Garda, Savita Kanade, Shireen J. Jejeebhoy, Bela Ganatra

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Need For Cognition And Message Complexity In Motivating Fruit And Vegetable Intake Among Callers To The Cancer Information Service, Pamela Williams-Piehota, Judith Pizarro, Stephanie A. Navarro Silvera, Linda Mowad, Peter Salovey

Department of Public Health Scholarship and Creative Works

The Impact Of Immunization On The Association Between Poverty And Child Survival: Evidence From Kassena-Nankana District Of Northern Ghana, Ayaga A. Bawah, James F. Phillips, Martin Adjuik, Maya Vaughan-Smith, Bruce Macleod, Fred N. Binka

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Urban Versus Rural Mortality Among Older Adults In China, Zachary Zimmer, Toshiko Kaneda, Laura Spess

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

The Implications Of Changing Educational And Family Circumstances For Children's Grade Progression In Rural Pakistan: 1997-2004, Cynthia B. Lloyd, Cem Mete, Monica J. Grant

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Providing New Opportunities To Adolescent Girls In Socially Conservative Settings: The Ishraq Program In Rural Upper Egypt, Martha Brady, Ragui Assaad, Barbara L. Ibrahim, Abeer Salem, Rania Salem, Nadia Zibani

Poverty, Gender, and Youth

Late Marriage And The Hiv Epidemic In Sub-Saharan Africa, John Bongaarts

Poverty, Gender, and Youth