Animal Experimentation and Research Commons^™

Optimization Of Primary Cilia Detection In Musculoskeletal Tissue, Ragen Engel

Williams Honors College, Honors Research Projects

The objective of this research project was to optimize a laboratory technique for visualizing primary cilia in musculoskeletal tissue of young swine, specifically the growth plate of long bones. This was accomplished through varying fixation procedures, antigen retrieval methods, antibody concentrations, and incubation times. By varying these parameters, a reproducible procedure was developed to examine the primary cilia in multiple tissues including ligament, fascia, and growth plate. This experiment introduced variances in fixation methods, with methanol or formalin. Paraffin and frozen embedding techniques were also varied for comparison with regards to cilia visualization. Results from the acetylated alpha tubulin (aTUB) …

Development Of A Pd-L1 Pet Imaging Biomarker, Caleb Jack Bridgwater

Posters-at-the-Capitol

Immunotherapy strategies are very promising treatments for cancer patients. Specifically, Immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy focusing on the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway shows long-lasting positive results in many cancer patients. Unfortunately, not all the patients can benefit from this highly effective treatment. Hence, there is a great need for predictive biomarkers. Immunohistochemical (IHC) staining has been used as a way of predicting patient response, yet shows many problems. For example, IHC utilizes an invasive biopsy and sample fixing, which creates an incomplete and delayed picture of the patient’s biochemistry and the tumor microenvironment, consequently ignoring metastases.

The purpose of this study is to …

Uplc-Ms/Ms Analysis Of Dextromethorphan-O-Demethylation Kinetics In Rat Brain Microsomes, Barent N. Dubois, Reza Mehvar

Pharmacy Faculty Articles and Research

Formation of dextrorphan (DXT) from dextromethorphan (DXM) has been widely used to assess cytochrome P450 2D (CYP2D) activity. Additionally, the kinetics of CYP2D activity have been well characterized in the liver microsomes. However, studies in brain microsomes are limited due to the lower microsomal content and abundance of CYP2D in the brain relative to the liver. In the present study, we developed a micro-scale enzymatic incubation method, coupled with a sensitive UPLC-MS/MS assay for the quantitation of the rate of DXT formation from DXM in brain microsomes. Rat brain microsomes were incubated with different concentrations of DXM for various times. …

Mapping Molecular Datasets Back To The Brain Regions They Are Extracted From: Remembering The Native Countries Of Hypothalamic Expatriates And Refugees, Arshad Khan, Alice Grant, Anais Martinez, Gully Burns, Brendan Thatcher, Vishwanath Anekonda, Benjamin Thompson, Zachary Roberts, Daniel Moralejo, James Blevins

Selected Works Temporary Series

This article, which includes novel unpublished data along with commentary and analysis,focuses on approaches to link transcriptomic, proteomic, and peptidomic datasets mined frombrain tissue to the original locations within the brain that they are derived from using digital atlasmapping techniques. We use, as an example, the transcriptomic, proteomic and peptidomicanalyses conducted in the mammalian hypothalamus. Following a brief historical overview, wehighlight studies that have mined biochemical and molecular information from the hypothalamusand then lay out a strategy for how these data can be linked spatially to the mapped locations in acanonical brain atlas where the data come from, thereby allowing …

Mapping Molecular Datasets Back To The Brain Regions They Are Extracted From: Remembering The Native Countries Of Hypothalamic Expatriates And Refugees, Khan, Alice Grant, Anais Martinez, Gully Burns, Brendan Thatcher, Vishwanath Anekonda, Benjamin Thompson, Zachary Roberts, Daniel Moralejo, James Blevins

Departmental Papers (Biology)

This article, which includes novel unpublished data along with commentary and analysis,focuses on approaches to link transcriptomic, proteomic, and peptidomic datasets mined frombrain tissue to the original locations within the brain that they are derived from using digital atlasmapping techniques. We use, as an example, the transcriptomic, proteomic and peptidomicanalyses conducted in the mammalian hypothalamus. Following a brief historical overview, wehighlight studies that have mined biochemical and molecular information from the hypothalamusand then lay out a strategy for how these data can be linked spatially to the mapped locations in acanonical brain atlas where the data come from, thereby allowing …

Pyruvate Kinase Isoform M2 Influences Autophagy And Related Processes In Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells, Matthew Lin

University Scholar Projects

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common form of liver cancer that affects ~14 million people in the world. Like all cancers, HCC is a disease that arises from unstinted cellular growth initiated by genetic alterations, metabolic changes, and dysregulation in key cellular pathways. Of interest is the relationship between metabolism and cell proliferation/degradation for therapeutic targeting. Pyruvate kinase M2 is a dimeric, glycolytically inactive isoform of the final enzyme involved in glycolysis, that is often upregulated in cancerous tissue. It is thought that the enzymatic function of PKM2 outside of glycolysis contributes to the biosynthesis of anabolic intermediates used …

Self-Oligomerization Regulates Stability Of Survival Motor Neuron Protein Isoforms By Sequestering An ScfSlmb Degron, Kelsey M. Gray, Kevin A. Kaifer, David Baillat, Ying Wen, Thomas R. Bonacci, Allison D. Ebert, Amanda C. Raimer, Ashlyn M. Spring, Sara Ten Have, Jacqueline J. Glascock, Kushol Gupta, Gregory D. Van Duyne, Michael J. Emanuele, Angus I. Lamond, Eric J. Wagner, Christian L. Lorson, A. Gregory Matera

Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Sciences Faculty Articles and Research

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is caused by homozygous mutations in human SMN1. Expression of a duplicate gene (SMN2) primarily results in skipping of exon 7 and production of an unstable protein isoform, SMNΔ7. Although SMN2 exon skipping is the principal contributor to SMA severity, mechanisms governing stability of survival motor neuron (SMN) isoforms are poorly understood. We used a Drosophila model system and label-free proteomics to identify the SCF^Slmb ubiquitin E3 ligase complex as a novel SMN binding partner. SCF^Slmb interacts with a phosphor degron embedded within the human and fruitfly SMN YG-box oligomerization domains. …

Structural Insights Into The Potency Of Sk Channel Positive Modulators, Young-Woo Nam, Razan Orfali, Tingting Liu, Kunqian Yu, Meng Cui, Heike Wulff, Miao Zhang

Pharmacy Faculty Articles and Research

Small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SK) channels play essential roles in the regulation of cellular excitability and have been implicated in neurological and cardiovascular diseases through both animal model studies and human genetic association studies. Over the past two decades, positive modulators of SK channels such as NS309 and 1-EBIO have been developed. Our previous structural studies have identified the binding pocket of 1-EBIO and NS309 that is located at the interface between the channel and calmodulin. In this study, we took advantage of four compounds with potencies varying over three orders of magnitude, including 1-EBIO, NS309, SKS-11 (6-bromo-5-methyl-1H-indole-2,3-dione-3-oxime) and …

Alcohol Consumption Impairs The Ependymal Cilia Motility In The Brain Ventricles, Alzahra J. Al Omran, Hannah C. Saternos, Yusuf S. Althobaiti, Alexander Wisner, Youssef Sari, Surya M. Nauli, Wissam A. Aboualaiwi

Pharmacy Faculty Articles and Research

Ependymal cilia protrude into the central canal of the brain ventricles and spinal cord to circulate the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF). Ependymal cilia dysfunction can hinder the movement of CSF leading to an abnormal accumulation of CSF within the brain known as hydrocephalus. Although the etiology of hydrocephalus was studied before, the effects of ethanol ingestion on ependymal cilia function have not been investigated in vivo. Here, we report three distinct types of ependymal cilia, type-I, type-II and type-III classified based upon their beating frequency, their beating angle, and their distinct localization within the mouse brain-lateral ventricle. Our studies …

Proteomic Analysis Of The Crustacean Molting Gland (Y-Organ) Over The Course Of The Molt Cycle, Talia B. Head

Master's Theses

Molting in crustaceans is a highly complex physiological process involving negative regulation by two paired endocrine glands, the X-organ/sinus gland complex (XO/SG) and the Y-organ (YO). The XO/SG complex is responsible for making molt-inhibiting hormone (MIH) which negatively regulates synthesis of the molting hormones, ecdysteroids, by the YO. Analysis of gene expression in the XOs and YOs has led to the development of a proposed molecular signaling pathway which regulates ecdysteroidogenesis and subsequent molting in crustaceans. In this study, changes in protein abundance in the YO were characterized over the course of a molt cycle (intermolt, early premolt, mid premolt, …

Ablation Of Adipose-Ho-1 Expression Increases White Fat Over Beige Fat Through Inhibition Of Mitochondrial Fusion And Of Pgc1alpha In Female Mice, S Singh, I Grant, A Meissner, A Kappas, Nader Abraham

NYMC Faculty Publications

Background Hmox1 plays an important role in the regulation of mitochondrial bioenergetics and function by regulating cellular heme-derived CO and bilirubin. Previous studies have demonstrated that global disruption of HO-1 in humans and mice resulted in severe organ dysfunction. Methods We investigated the potential role of adipose-specific-HO-1 genetic ablation on adipose tissue function, mitochondrial quality control and energy expenditure by generating an adipo-HO-1 knockout mouse model (Adipo-HO-1-/-) and, in vitro, adipocyte cells in which HO activity was inhibited. Adiposity, signaling proteins, fasting glucose and oxygen consumption were determined and compared to adipocyte cultures with depressed levels of both HO-1/HO-2. Results …

Ivd Formation In Monodelphis Domestica, Emma C.B. Gray, Jen Maier, Karen Sears

PRECS student projects

The research summarized on this poster supports the use of the gray short-tailed opossum (Monodelphis domestica) as a lab animal for research into invertebral disc formation and degeneration. Preliminary data suggests that some genes involved in the formation and maintenance of the notochord in mice are the same in the short-tailed opossum. Data also suggests the ossification of the vertebral column of pups proceeds anteriorly to posteriorly and that much of the maturation of the nucleus puposus happens in the first ten days.

Lymphoid Hematopoiesis And The Role Of B-Cells In Transgenic Mouse Model Of Sickle Cell Disease, Christina Cotte

University Scholar Projects

Sickle cell disease (SCD) has been shown to be associated with decreased baseline immunity and thus increased susceptibility to infection. I sought to discern possible causes of this by looking into the correlations between SCD and hematopoiesis, the immune system and the neuroendocrine system, and ultimately by conducting experiments surrounding the impaired immune system of SCD. These experiments focused on the potential causes and effects of the diminution of B-1a cells in the SCD spleen. Adoptive transfers, infections with Streptococcus pneumoniae, and histologic imaging were conducted to establish if the diminution of the B-1a cells in the SCD spleen …

Annual Wormwood Leaf Inhibits The Adipogenesis Of 3t3-L1 And Obesity In High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Rats, Y Song, S Lee, S Jang, T Kim, Hong-Duck Kim, S Kim, C Won, J Cho

NYMC Faculty Publications

Annual wormwood (AW) (Artemisia annua L.) has anti-malarial, anti-bacterial, anti-oxidant, anti-tumour, and anti-inflammatory activities. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of annual wormwood leaves (AWL) on adipocyte differentiation in 3T3-L1 cells and high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese rats. 3T3-L1 adipocytes and HFD-induced obese rats were treated with AWL, and its effect on gene expression was analyzed using RT-PCR and Western blotting experiments. Treatment with AWL effectively prevented triglyceride accumulation during adipogenesis in a dose-dependent manner. Consistently, AWL suppressed the differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes through the downregulation of dexamethasone, 3-isobutyl-1- methylxanthine, and insulin (DMI)-induced serine/threonine kinase protein kinase …

Effects Of Chromium On Mouse Splenic T Lymphocytes And Effects Of Ethanol Exposure During Early Neurodevelopment On Behaviors In Mice, Lu Dai

Theses and Dissertations--Toxicology and Cancer Biology

The dissertation consists of three major projects with the focus on the immunotoxicity of chromium and the behavior disorders caused by early ETOH exposure respectively.

Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] is widely used in various industrial processes and has been recognized as a carcinogen. As the first line of host defense system, the immune system can be a primary target of Cr(VI). T cell population represents a major arm of the immune system that plays a critical role in host anti-tumor immunity. Dysfunction of T cells compromises host anti-tumor immunity resulting in oncogenesis. Using mouse splenic T cells as an in vitro …

Mammary Extracellular Matrix Directs Differentiation Of Testicular And Embryonic Stem Cells To Form Functional Mammary Glands In Vivo, Robert D. Bruno, Jodie M. Fleming, Andrea L. George, Corinne A. Boulanger, Pepper Schedin, Gilbert H. Smith

School of Medical Diagnostics & Translational Sciences Publications

Previously, we demonstrated the ability of the normal mammary microenvironment (niche) to direct non-mammary cells including testicular and embryonic stem cells (ESCs) to adopt a mammary epithelial cell (MEC) fate. These studies relied upon the interaction of transplanted normal MECs with non-mammary cells within the mammary fat-pads of recipient mice that had their endogenous epithelium removed. Here, we tested whether acellular mammary extracellular matrix (mECM) preparations are sufficient to direct differentiation of testicular-derived cells and ESCs to form functional mammary epithelial trees in vivo. We found that mECMs isolated from adult mice and rats were sufficient to redirect testicular derived …

Zebrafish (Danio Rerio) As A Model For Orofacial Research, Kevin A. Ghaffari

Theses and Dissertations

Across species, the face and more specifically the mouth, serves as an essential facet of everyday life. Amongst humans the mouth serves as a tool for the ingestion of food, a marker for facial recognition and a medium for communication. In order for the mouth to properly form, a series of precise growth and fusion events are needed. In order to insure that these events are orchestrated properly is a wide array of signals, transcription factors and epigenetic regulators. Due to the needed precision of these events, congenital birth defects of the face such as cleft lip and cleft palate …

Age-Dependent Breakdown Of The Blood Brain Barrier And Associated Changes In S100b Ko Mice, Eric V. Brown

Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences Theses and Dissertations

Autoantibodies play an important role in many autoimmune diseases. Recent research has shown that breakdown of the blood brain barrier (BBB) occurs concomitant to generation of brain reactive autoantibodies in many neurodegenerative diseases, which serve as biomarkers and drivers of pathology. SI00B, a calcium binding protein found most highly expressed in astrocytes which ensheathe the BBB, has many functions in neural development and signaling. Currently literature indicates that S100B KO mice develop normally, with no phenotypic abnormalities. Here, it is demonstrated that S100B KO mice seem to develop a chronic BBB breakdown similar to that seen in human neurodegenerative diseases. …

Paracrine-Rescued Lobulogenesis In Chimeric Outgrowths Comprising Progesterone-Receptor-Null Mammary Epithelium And Redirected Wild-Type Testicular Cells, Robert D. Bruno, Corinne A. Boulanger, Sonia M. Rosenfield, Lisa H. Anderson, John P. Lydon, Gilbert H. Smith

School of Medical Diagnostics & Translational Sciences Publications

We have previously shown that non-mammary and tumorigenic cells can respond to the signals of the mammary niche and alter their cell fate to that of mammary epithelial progenitor cells. Here we tested the hypothesis that paracrine signals from mammary epithelial cells expressing progesterone receptor (PR) are dispensable for redirection of testicular cells, and that re-directed wild-type testicular-derived mammary cells can rescue lobulogenesis of PR-null mammary epithelium by paracrine signaling during pregnancy. We injected PR-null epithelial cells mixed with testicular cells from wild-type adult male mice into cleared fat-pads of recipient mice. The testicular cells were redirected in vivo to …

Late Developing Mammary Tumors And Hyperplasia Induced By A Low-Oncogenic Variant Of Mouse Mammary Tumor Virus (Mmtv) Express Genes Identical To Those Induced By Canonical Mmtv, Robert D. Bruno

School of Medical Diagnostics & Translational Sciences Publications

Background: The canonical milk-transmitted mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) of C3H mice (C3H-MMTV) rapidly induces tumors in 90% of infected animals by 8 months of age. Pro-viral insertions of C3H-MMTV into genomic DNA results in the overexpression of common core insertion site (CIS) genes, including Wnt1/10b, Rspo2, and Fgf3. Conversely, infection by either the endogenous Mtv-1 virus (in C3Hf) or the exogenous nodule-inducing virus (NIV) (in Balb/c NIV) induces premalignant mammary lesions and tumors with reduced incidence and longer latency than C3H-MMTV. Here, we asked whether Mtv-1/NIV affected the expression of core CIS genes.

Findings: We confirmed the presence of …

Embryonic Stem Cells Are Redirected To Non-Tumorigenic Epithelial Cell Fate By Interaction With The Mammary Microenvironment, Corinne A. Boulanger, Robert D. Bruno, David L. Mack, Monica Gonzales, Nadia P. Castro, David S. Salomon, Gilbert H. Smith

School of Medical Diagnostics & Translational Sciences Publications

Experiments were conducted to redirect mouse Embryonic Stem (ES) cells from a tumorigenic phenotype to a normal mammary epithelial phenotype in vivo. Mixing LacZ-labeled ES cells with normal mouse mammary epithelial cells at ratios of 1:5 and 1:50 in phosphate buffered saline and immediately inoculating them into epithelium-divested mammary fat pads of immune-compromised mice accomplished this. Our results indicate that tumorigenesis occurs only when normal mammary ductal growth is not achieved in the inoculated fat pads. When normal mammary gland growth occurs, we find ES cells (LacZ+) progeny interspersed with normal mammary cell progeny in the mammary epithelial structures. We …

A Novel Strategy Utilizing Co-Expression Of Murine Il-12 And Antisense Tgf-Pl Against H238 Tumor Formation, Craig A. Seheult

Loma Linda University Electronic Theses, Dissertations & Projects

Cytokines have a profound effect on immune modulation, thus playing a significant role in cancer gene therapy. A variety of human carcinomas secrete transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), a cytokine with potent immunosuppressive properties. Suppressing TGF-β could be a key to successfully combating malignancies, such as gliomas, mammary, and colon cancers, that over-express TGF-β. Conversely, interleukin-12 (IL-12) is a potent immunostimulatory cytokine capable of regulating T and NK cell-mediated cytotoxic responses (Trinchieri, 1994) during an anti-tumor response. Activation of the immune system with such immunostimulatory cytokines renders it inert to the suppressive effects of TGF-β. To better understand these processes our …

Effects Of Liposome-Encapsulated Tnf-Alpha And Radiation Against Colon Cancer, Dong Won Kim

Loma Linda University Electronic Theses, Dissertations & Projects

Previous studies have shown that tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) can augment the antitumor effects of radiation, inhibiting tumor progression to a greater extent than either modality alone. However, nonspecific toxicities associated with TNF-α have limited its use as an adjuvant. This limitation is potentially resolved with the encapsulation of TNF-α in sterically stabilized, PEGylated liposomes (STEALTH®). Thus, the overall hypothesis of the research was that the combination of radiation with STEALTH® liposome encapsulated TNF-α (SL-TNF-α) will have greater efficacy and fewer dose-limiting side effects in the LS174T human colorectal tumor xenograft model compared to the combination of free TNF-α and …

Insulinlike Growth Factor 1- And 2-Augmented Collagen Gel Repair Of Facial Osseous Defects, James S. Toung, Roy C. Ogle, Raymond F. Morgan, William H. Lindsey

School of Medical Diagnostics & Translational Sciences Publications

BACKGROUND: Defects of the facial bone structure are common problems for the facial plastic surgeon. Native type 1 collagen gels (T1CGs) have been shown to mediate repair of facial critical-size defects in rat models.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy of T1CG augmented with insulinlike growth factor (IGF) 1, IGF-2, and a combination of IGF-1 and IGF-2 on the repair of facial critical-size defects in a rodent model.

METHODS: Twenty-four retired male breeder Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 4 groups of 6 animals. Facial critical-size defects were created by removing the nasalis bones with a bone-cutting drill. Defects were treated with …

An Immunomodulating Mycotoxin Interferes With The Development Of Autoimmune Diabetes In Diabetes-Prone Bb/Wor Rats, Honggang Liu

Theses, Dissertations and Capstones

Various fungal products have immunomodulating activity and some have been studied regarding prevention of transplantation rejection. Prior to this investigation, the mycotoxin, gliotoxin (GT), has never been investigated as an immunotherapeutic drug for autoimmune disease. GT is a fungal secondary metabolite and a member of the epipolythiodioxopiperazine (ETP) family which has been shown to inhibit phagocytosis, induction of cytolytic T cells and the proliferation of T cells following mitogen stimulation. GT also induces in vitro apoptosis in certain immune cell types. More importantly, GT exhibits selective activity towards cells of hemopoietic origin.

Autoimmune diseases are disorders caused by immune responses …

External Morphology Of The Chorion Of The Annual Fishes Cynolebias (Cyprinodontiformes: Rivulidae), Marcelo Loureiro, Rafael O. De Sá

Biology Faculty Publications

Members of the family Rivulidae (killifishes) inhabit temporary bodies of freshwater in South and Central America (one species is also found in North America). The most remarkable characteristic of the family Rivulidae is that species have an annual life cycle with a drought-resistant egg during the dry season. Parenti's (1981) analysis of the order Cyprinodontiformes considered a single genus, Cynolebias, whereas Cos- ta's (1990) phylogenetic analysis of the family Rivulidae separates Cynolebias from Cynopoecilus. One of Costa's synapomorphies to separate Cynopoecilus is the unique structure of their egg's chorion, which is shared with Leptolebias and Campellolebias.

Regulation Of Melanogenesis In B16 Mouse Melanoma Cells By Protein Kinase C (Pkc), Harish Mahalingam

Theses, Dissertations and Capstones

The pigment cell-specific expression of tyrosinase and TRP1 has been shown to be important for the production of melanin in pigmented cells. Using a pigmented cell line, B16 mouse melanoma, we obtained evidence that PKC plays a major role in regulating melanogenesis. Chronic treatment with phorbol dibutyrate (PDBu) leads to downregulation of PKC activity and protein levels. This is accompanied by a loss of pigmentation which is correlated with a 50% reduction and a complete loss of TRP1 and tyrosinase respectively. Similar results were obtained with Northern and Western blotting indicating that PKC may regulate the steady state levels of …

A New Model Species For Cultured Teleost Retinal Cell Studies: Light And Scanning Electron Microscopy, Lori Ann Steinfeldt

Undergraduate Honors Capstone Projects

Purpose: To examine retinal horizontal and bipolar cells cultured from goldfish (Carassius auratus), black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) and bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) on the light and electron microscope levels; and to compare them with cells from a more established model, the wild white bass (Roccus chrysops). Methods: Retinas from all species were dissociated by methods developed with wild white bass (Dowling et al., 1985). Cell type was identified within the first 3 hr and cells were cultured for up to 2 wk in L-15 medium. At various intervals, cells were fixed in glutaraldehyde, …

Ribosomal Dna And The Phylogeny Of Frogs, David M. Hills, Loren K. Ammerman, Michael T. Dixon, Rafael O. De Sá

Biology Faculty Publications

Phylogenetic analysis of 1656 aligned sites in the 28S ribosomal RNA gene of frogs supports some of the recently recognized higher groups of anurans but provides counter-support for others. The 28S rDNA data support the monophyly of the recently recognized Pipanura (me- sobatrachians plus neobatrachians), which in turn indicates paraphyly of archaeobatrachians. Me- sobatrachians (pelobatoids plus pipoids), which are either considered paraphyletic or weakly sup- ported as monophyletic in morphological analyses, also receive support as a monophyletic group from the 28S rDNA data. Hyloidea (=Bufonoidea), which is widely recognized but lacks morphological support, receives some molecular support as being monophyletic. …

Effect Of Photoperiod On Developmental Morphology And Enolase Isoenzyme Immunohistochemistry In Rat And Djungarian Hamster Superficial Pineal Glands, Chalmer D. Mcclure

Loma Linda University Electronic Theses, Dissertations & Projects

The best understood functional activity of the pineal gland is its diurnal production of melatonin in response to environmental lighting cues. Several enzymes of the melatonin pathway respond to daily photoperiod changes, for example hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase (HIOMT) and serotonin N-acetyltransferase (SNAT). Increased levels of the glycolytic enzyme neuron-specific enolase (NSE) are thought to reflect increased physiological demands placed on neurons and neuroendocrine tissues. Homodimer non-neuronal enolase isoenzyme (NNE) is immunolocalized to cells, and the hybrid enolase (consisting of subunits from NSE and NNE) has been seen in cerebellar stellate and basket cells. Although not rate limiting, concentrations of both NSE and …