Neuroscience and Neurobiology Commons^™

Impact Of Acute Stress On Circadian Rhythm Regulation Of Locomotor Activity In Syrian Hamsters, Raquel A. Villarreal, Laura E. Garcia, Mario Gil

Research Symposium

Background: Disruptions of circadian rhythms, caused by factors such as environmental changes or stress, are linked to health conditions, including metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and mood disorders. Circadian rhythm disturbances are particularly relevant for understanding the etiology of conditions like insomnia, depression, and anxiety. The circadian rhythm, primarily regulated by the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) in the hypothalamus, coordinates biological processes to align with daily environmental cycles. Acute stress, especially when experienced immediately upon waking, has been shown to disrupt these rhythms, impair sleep regulation, and exacerbate mood dysregulation. Given the significant clinical implications, understanding how stress impacts circadian rhythms is …

Designing Accessible Ui/Ux For Epileptic Patients: A Scalable Solution For Music Therapy Delivery, Amethyst G.H. Mckenzie

Computer Science Senior Theses

How can we design an accessible, scalable UI/UX system tailored to the cognitive, visual, and motor impairments of epileptic patients, that ensures safe and effective interactions with music therapy applications? This research explores the intersection of accessibility, user-centred design, and digital health, using an iterative design process to develop and refine the SONATA app—a clinically deployable music therapy platform.

Through two prototype iterations, usability testing, and quantitative event logging, this study compares the effectiveness of structured versus flexible navigation in improving user experience. Key findings reveal that structured navigation reduces unintended detours, while progressive disclosure techniques enhance instructional clarity. Additionally, …

The Role Of The Female Reproductive Cycle In Social Communication And Relevance To Mental Health, Julissa Amaro Castillo, Fernando Dominguez, Ariana Hinojosa, Giselle Padilla, Mario Gil

Research Symposium

The female reproductive cycle is characterized by fluctuating hormones, including estrogens and progesterone, that are involved in reproductive health; however, they have also been linked to disorders like Premenstrual syndrome (PMS), Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD), mood swings, depression and others. The goal of this study is to use the Syrian hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) as an animal model to examine the influence of the reproductive cycle and hormones on behavior. Scent-marking activity known as flank marking is exhibited by territorial or sociable animals. In essence, animals mark their territory or convey information such as reproductive status by rubbing their flanks or …

Effects Of Arginine-Vasopressin In The Brain On Cardiovascular Function In A Psychosocial Stress Animal Model, Esmeralda Lopez-Garcia, Ariana V. Hinojosa, Esperanza I. Alaniz, Fernando Dominguez, Giselle Padilla, Mario Gil

Research Symposium

Background: Psychosocial stress impacts cardiovascular health, increasing the risk of events like myocardial infarction (MI), stress cardiomyopathy, and neuropsychiatric disorders, including Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Anxiety. However, our understanding of the biological mechanisms that connect psychosocial stress with negative cardiovascular and psychological outcomes remains incomplete. Arginine-vasopressin (AVP) is linked to both mental and physical health by regulating social behavior, blood pressure, and anxiety-related behaviors. This study investigates the potential cardioprotective effects of the neuropeptide AVP, in an effort to generate evidence that it may strengthen heart function and lessen the severity of adverse cardiovascular events caused by stress, brain …

Investigating The Relationship Among Environmental Factors, Reproductive Status, And Stress In A Preclinical Model Of Endocrine Function In Women’S Translational Health, Bianca A. Camacho, Laura Emma Garcia, Raquel Villarreal, Mario Gil

Research Symposium

Background: The average menstrual cycle of a healthy adult woman is a duration of approximately 28 days, during which in the follicular phase (first 14 days) the progesterone hormone is at a stable level while estrogen increases to its peak level on day 14. Day 14 is known as ovulation, during which progesterone increases during its Luteinizing Hormone (LH) surge while estrogen decreases. Menses, known colloquially as a woman’s “period,” begins approximately at day 14 after ovulation and lasts an average of 7 days. The luteal phase, otherwise known as the secretory phase, lasts for the remaining 14 days until …

Exploring The Effects Of Serotonin And Ssris On The Neurological, Behavioral, And Cardiovascular Systems Under Induced Stress –Using The Animal Model Of The Syrian Hamster, Ariana V. Hinojosa, Esperanza I. Alaniz, Esmeralda Lopez-Garcia, Giselle Padilla, Fernando Dominquez, Mario Gil

Research Symposium

Background: Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that has been found to have a wide range of effects on not just the neuropsychological processes but has also been found to exert effects outside the central nervous system (CNS); regulating numerous biological processes, such as metabolism, gastrointestinal system, reproductive function, and even the cardiovascular system. However, there is still a limited understanding of how serotonin affects all these systems due to its complexity and ability to regulate homeostasis. This project aims to create a stronger foundation of knowledge about serotonin and its influence on the interaction between the CNS, behavior, and cardiac function …

Uncovering The Mechanisms Of Glioblastoma Relapse Prevention With Niclosamide And Camptothecin Treatment, Xiaoqian Fang, Araely Ruiz, Eunseo Yang, Brianna Morin, Kimberly Herrera-Toscano, Megan Szobody, Josue Fonseca, John-Beloved Osho, Raquel Lara

Research Symposium

Background: Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and lethal malignant primary brain tumor for which the development of efficacious chemotherapeutic agents remains an urgent need. In our previous studies, we demonstrated that niclosamide and camptothecin (CPT) synergistically suppressed the proliferation in human glioblastoma U87 MG cells. Recently, we observed that U87 MG cells failed to resume growth after the combined treatment was removed, a phenomenon not seen with either agent alone. We aimed to explore the sustained anti-tumor effects of niclosamide and CPT in GBM.

Methods: Human glioblastoma U87 MG cells were treated with 5 mM niclosamide, 5 mM …

Data Reporting Quality And Semantic Interoperability Increase With Community-Based Data Elements (Codes). Analysis Of The Open Data Commons For Spinal Cord Injury (Odc-Sci), Anushka Sheoran, Kenneth A. Fond, Lex Maliga Davis, J. R. Huie, Romana Vavrek, P. J. Axtman, Vance P. Lemmon, John L. Bixby, Ubbo Visser, John C. Gensel, Karim Fouad, Adam R. Ferguson, Jeffrey S. Grethe, Anita Bandrowski, Maryann E. Martone, Abel Torres-Espin

Neurology Faculty Publications

Data interoperability is crucial for effectively combining data for scientific inquiry. To facilitate interoperability, data standards such as a common definition of variables are often developed. The Open Data Commons for Spinal Cord Injury (odc-sci.org) has established an initial set of community-based data elements (CoDEs)—a minimal set of variables for sharing—to promote data interoperability in SCI research, aligning with FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable) data principles. We sought to understand the use of CoDEs by the SCI community to inform current standards adherence and future standards development. We systematically analyzed 39 public datasets in relation to 17 required CoDEs …

Contraceptive Hormone Influences On The Role Of Primary Reinforcement And Reinforcer-Enhancement In Nicotine Self-Administration, Kathleen Robin Mcnealy

Dissertations and Doctoral Documents, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 2023–

Hormonal contraceptives contain a synthetic estrogen (e.g., ethinyl estradiol/EE) and/or a synthetic progestin (e.g., levonorgestrel/LEVO) and can exacerbate nicotine intake. However, whether altered intake reflects changes in nicotine reinforcement or enhancement by nicotine of co-occurring reinforcers is unknown. This reinforcer-enhancement effect is evidenced in rats when nicotine self-administration is increased by the presence of a visual stimulus (VS) reinforcer. This dissertation examined the effects of EE and LEVO on nicotine reinforcement and reinforcer-enhancement in ovary-intact female Sprague-Dawley rats. Rats were implanted with a jugular catheter and assigned to receive daily injections of EE (Vehicle, 0.125 [Low], or 0.18 [High] μg/day; …

Comparison Of Deep Learning And Traditional Machine Learning Models For Predicting Mild Cognitive Impairment Using Plasma Proteomic Biomarkers, Kesheng Wang, Donald A. Adjeroh, Wei Fang, Suzy M. Walter, Danqing Xiao, Ubolrat Piamjariyakul, Chun Xu

Health & Biomedical Sciences Faculty Publications

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a clinical condition characterized by a decline in cognitive ability and progression of cognitive impairment. It is often considered a transitional stage between normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). This study aimed to compare deep learning (DL) and traditional machine learning (ML) methods in predicting MCI using plasma proteomic biomarkers. A total of 239 adults were selected from the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) cohort along with a pool of 146 plasma proteomic biomarkers. We evaluated seven traditional ML models (support vector machines (SVMs), logistic regression (LR), naïve Bayes (NB), random forest (RF), k-nearest neighbor …

The Impact Of Diabetes On Neurovascular Integrity: A Special Focus On Pericytes And Endothelin-1, Mia Edgerton

MUSC Theses and Dissertations

Diabetes increases the risk of stroke and Vascular Contributions to Cognitive Impairment and Dementia (VCID). Diabetes also dysregulates the endothelin (ET) system. ET-1-mediated constriction of brain microvascular pericytes (BMVPCs) has been shown to contribute to brain hypoperfusion. However, there is a loss of BMVPCs in VCID, but underlying mechanisms of pericyte degeneration are poorly studied. ETA receptor activation can instigate phenotypical changes and cellular senescence in endothelial cells. . There is also emerging evidence that ETB receptor agonism improves outcomes in patients with cerebral ischemic stroke, but long-term effects, especially in diabetes, are unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to determine …

In-Silico Modeling And Characterization Of Kcc2 Protein Interaction With A Small Molecule Direct Agonist Identifies Potential Binding Sites For Modulating Behaviors Associated With Substances Of Abuse, William Hai Dang Ho, Alfred Amendolara, Kenyon Mitchell, Jaden Miner, Ruth Northcott, Braxton Bingham, Andrew J. Payne

Annual Research Symposium

Purpose

KCC2 is a potassium-chloride cotransporter that plays a critical role in neuronal function by regulating GABAergic signaling via chloride gradients. Maintaining this concentration gradient is crucial for balancing excitation and inhibition in the brain. While KCC2 dysregulation has been implicated in epilepsy and seizures, recent studies suggest that KCC2 inhibition results in phenotypes mirroring those seen in chronic opioid dependence. As such, increasing evidence support KCC2 being a potential therapeutic target for modulating behaviors associated with substances of abuse. Currently, only a few direct small molecule agonists against KCC2 have been reported, and no definitive active site on the …

How Hormonal Changes And The Oral Microbiome Interact With Periodontal And Alzheimer’S Disease To Influence Chronic Inflammation And Cognitive Decline?, Vanessa Chavez-Sinks, Kamran H. Awan

Annual Research Symposium

This review aims to investigate the potential of the bidirectional relationship between Alzheimer’s disease and periodontal disease. The Key players of hormonal fluctuations and microbiome dysbiosis emphasize the shared mechanisms that interplay among both conditions to identify the potential therapeutic opportunities.

Investigating The Effects Of Resveratrol On Opioid-Induced Hyperalgesia, Bryana Cox, Thien Do, Ashlyn Hughes, Zane Kingsbury, Keara Leroy, Andrew J. Payne

Annual Research Symposium

Opioid-induced hyperalgesia (OIH) is an adverse effect of chronic opioid therapy, characterized by increased sensitivity to pain. This study will seek to determine if using resveratrol supplementation as an indirect enhancer to increase the expression of the KCC2 membrane transporter can alleviate the symptoms of OIH in human subjects.

Use Of Synthetic Water-Soluble Kcc2 To Modulate Chloride Homeostasis In Cultured Dopamine-Neuron-Like Cells, Mason Terry, Andrew Payne, Dario Mizrachi

Annual Research Symposium

No abstract provided.

Comprehensive Sumo Proteomic Analyses Identify Hiv Latency-Associated Proteins In Microglia., Fergan Imbert, Dianne Langford

Rowan-Virtua School of Osteopathic Medicine Departmental Research

SUMOylation, the post-translational modification of proteins by small ubiquitin-like modifiers, plays a critical role in regulating various cellular processes, including innate immunity. This modification is essential for modulating immune responses and influencing signaling pathways that govern the activation and function of immune cells. Recent studies suggest that SUMOylation also contributes to the pathophysiology of central nervous system (CNS) viral infections, where it contributes to the host response and viral replication dynamics. Here, we explore the multifaceted role of SUMOylation in innate immune signaling and its implications for viral infections within the CNS. Notably, we present novel proteomic analyses aimed at …

Anatomy And Variations Of The Carina And Its Cartilaginous Makeup: A Cadaveric Study, Chung Yoh Kim, Kristen Rizzuto, Daniel Tahan, Devendra Shekhawat, Rarinthorn Samrid, Yoko Tabira, Stephen J. Bordes, Joe Iwanaga, R. Shane Tubbs

School of Medicine Faculty Publications

Purpose: The carina, located at the bifurcation of the trachea, has been regarded as a part of the trachea. Although clinically useful as an anatomical landmark, studies of its detailed morphology are lacking in the literature. Methods: The distal trachea and left and right main bronchi were harvested from 32 cadavers and the carina studied using microsurgical dissection, endoscopy, micro-CT, and histology. Results: The right bronchial cartilages were most commonly involved in forming the carina (72.41%), and the left bronchial cartilages were the second most commonly involved (37.93%). The carinal cartilages were slightly deviated to the left of midline in …

Behavioral And Neural Effects Of Distributing Visual Attention Across Location And Feature Space, Mert Özkan

Dartmouth College Ph.D Dissertations

Visual attention refers to the mechanisms by which relevant visual information, such as location, simple features (e.g., color, orientation), and objects, is selected and prioritized for further processing. The current dissertation investigates capacity limitations on spatial and feature–based attention in early visual processing and behavioral performance. Specifically, I examined whether attention could be efficiently tuned across narrow and broad ranges of locations and colors, or even be split across noncontiguous locations in the case of spatial attention. I used several behavioral paradigms and frequency–tagging methods in electroencephalography (EEG) to illustrate the effects of narrowing or broadening the attentional focus on …

Life Span Policies And Macroeconomic Transition Will Help The 21st-Century Brain Health Revolution In Developing Countries, Cyprian Mostert, Chinedu Momoh, Manasi Kumar, Shehzad Ali, Kendi Muchungi, Gloria Chemutai, Cynthia Smith, Dominic Trepel, Harris Eyre, Lukoye Atwoli

Brain and Mind Institute

In 2022, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued the Intersectoral Global Action Plan for Epilepsy and Other Neurological Disorders for 2022 to 2031, emphasizing important connections between brain health, population well-being, and economic growth. A year later, the WHO followed up with strategic guidelines aimed at enhancing brain health outcomes in developing countries. However, critical gaps remain. Our policy forum paper advocates for policies that target brain health across all stages of life, starting with measures to reduce the consumption of alcohol, sugar, and tobacco. Additionally, we propose the integration of school meal programs and social pension schemes as essential …

Category Learning Reorganizes Internal Representations Of Visual Artworks, Aishwarya Gurung

Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects

How are categories of art internally represented, and how can we capture those representations systematically? Investigating category learning in the context of complex, multidimensional stimuli like visual artworks presents unique challenges due to their inherent variability and perceptual complexity. Artworks engage multiple cognitive processes and are shaped by both sensory-driven mechanisms and top-down influences like prior knowledge, making them uniquely suited for studying how structured categorical knowledge interacts with perceptual and aesthetic judgments. The present study addresses these questions by utilizing machine-learning tools to construct and implement a two-dimensional similarity space of 400 existing artworks painted by two artists from …

Constructing A Parameterized Stimuli Space Suitable To Induce Controlled Changes In Human And Machine Perceptual Systems, Andrew Frankel

Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects

Traditional computer vision applications focus on objective tasks, such as object detection, classification, or segmentation. Much of human experience is inherently subjective, such as our personal response to artwork. Individualized experiences are challenging to replicate in a controlled laboratory environment, as those experiences depend on the unique history and internal models of the observer. This work presents a technique to construct a 2-dimensional parameterized stimuli space suitable to induce controlled changes in the perceptual systems of both human and machine observers. Our contributions are threefold:

1. Using a balanced dataset of 8,800 fine art images spanning 11 art movements and 88 …

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The Psychophysiology Of Primary And Secondary Variants Of Psychopathic Traits In Youth, Ines Guariguata

Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects

Psychopathy is a cluster of personality traits marked by a pervasive callousness, lack of shame or remorse, deceitfulness, a persona of confidence and charm, shallow emotional connection, general lack of insight into their actions, and an absence of anxiety (Glenn & Raine, 2014; Hare, 2003). Research suggests that there are distinct etiological pathways to the development of psychopathic traits and that their responses to treatment are different (Craig et al., 2021; Yildrim & Derksen, 2015; Fleming et al., 2023). Primary variants show a low-fear, low-anxiety profile during stress, and have a genetic basis (Craig et al., 2021; Yildrim & Derksen, …

Vertex-Based Analysis Of Cerebral Blood Flow And Fractional Amplitude Of Low-Frequency Fluctuations (Cbf-Falff) Coupling In Moderate-To-Severe Traumatic Brain Injury During The First Year Post-Injury, Vaidehi Hemkumar Patel

Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is known to involve damage in the neurovascular unit. TBI may disrupt the brain’s neurovascular coupling–the relationship between cerebral blood flow and neural activity–that can lead to cognitive and functional impairments. This study attempted to non-invasively investigate neurovascular coupling in patients with moderate to severe TBI (msTBI) during the first year post-injury using a combined metric of cerebral blood flow (CBF) and fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (fALFF), a proxy for spontaneous neural activity. Using arterial spin labeling (ASL) and functional MRI sequences, CBF and fALFF were measured in 29 msTBI patients 3-, 6- and 12-months …

An Erp Study Of Attentional Blink And Inhibition Of Return, Caesar Ekya

Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects

Attention can be allocated over time and space and it has long been speculated whether these are a part of the same or different attentional mechanisms. Attentional Blink (AB) and Inhibition of Return (IOR) are cognitive phenomena that are used in experimental settings to study temporal attention (AB) and spatial attention (IOR) respectively. Though known for being representative of different types of attention, they nevertheless display similar characteristics, making them intriguing choices to study the interplay between temporal and spatial attention. For this study we chose a dual-stream rsvp paradigm that would elicit both AB and IOR within the same …

Evidence For Interactive Effects Of Inhibitory And Prospective Intolerance Of Uncertainty And Stimulus-Level Uncertainty On Threat Safety Discrimination Learning, Kyoko Yazaki

Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects

Fear is a fundamental component of human learning, critical for survival, and extensively studied through Pavlovian conditioning paradigms (LeDoux & Pine, 2016). This thesis examines the interplay between stimulus-level uncertainty and individual differences in intolerance of uncertainty (IU) on threat-safety discrimination learning. Using a within-subject design, participants were conditioned to certain (100% reinforcement), uncertain (50% reinforcement), and safety (0% reinforcement) cues through the pairing of colored visual stimuli with aversive electrical shocks. Discrimination learning was assessed using both implicit (SCR) and explicit (self-reported US expectancy estimates and unpleasantness ratings) measures.

The present study (n = 102) replicated previous findings showing …

Evaluating The Generalisability Of Region-Naïve Machine Learning Algorithms For The Identification Of Epilepsy In Low-Resource Settings, Ioana Duta, Symon M. Kariuki, Anthony Ngugi, Angelina Kakooza Mwesige, Honorati Masanja, Daniel M. Mwanga, Seth Owusu-Agyei, Ryan Wagner, J Helen Cross, Josemir W. Sander W. Sander

Population Health, East Africa

Objectives: Approximately 80% of people with epilepsy live in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where limited resources and stigma hinder accurate diagnosis and treatment. Clinical machine learning models have demonstrated substantial promise in supporting the diagnostic process in LMICs by aiding in preliminary screening and detection of possible epilepsy cases without relying on specialised or trained personnel. How well these models generalise to naïve regions is, however, underexplored. Here, we use a novel approach to assess the suitability and applicability of such clinical tools to aid screening and diagnosis of active convulsive epilepsy in settings beyond their original training contexts. …

Pull Or Play? The Interpretation Of A Novel, Ai-Powered On-Field Decision Support Tool., Lynne Becker, Dafne Badilla, Osho Yonzon, Xiaoyu Wu, Roland Rocafort, Erik Viogan Phd, Devansh Manocha

Journal for Sports Neuroscience

The document titled "Pull or Play? The interpretation of a novel, AI-powered on-field decision support tool" explores the development and application of the Injury Impact Severity Score (IISS)™ for assessing traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), particularly in sports settings. It addresses the limitations of current assessment tools like the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) and proposes a more objective approach using patient-reported data and machine learning algorithms.

Key points include:

• Background: TBIs are a significant health concern with under-reported cases and a lack of effective research. Current assessment tools like the GCS have limitations in accuracy and speed, especially in dynamic …

Fos Expression In The Periaqueductal Gray, But Not The Ventromedial Hypothalamus, Is Correlated With Psychosocial Stress-Induced Cocaine-Seeking Behavior In Rats, Nicole M Hinds, Ireneusz D Wojtas, Desta M Pulley, Stephany J Mcdonald, Colton D Spencer, Milena Sudarikov, Nicole E Hubbard, Colin M Kulick-Soper, Samantha De Guzman, Sara Hayden, Jessica J Debski, Bianca Patel, Douglas P Fox, Daniel F Manvich

Rowan-Virtua School of Osteopathic Medicine Departmental Research

Psychosocial stressors are known to promote cocaine craving and relapse in humans but are infrequently employed in preclinical relapse models. Consequently, the underlying neural circuitry by which these stressors drive cocaine seeking has not been thoroughly explored. Using Fos expression analyses, we sought to examine whether the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) or periaqueductal gray (PAG), two critical components of the brain's hypothalamic defense system, are activated during psychosocial stress-induced cocaine seeking. Adult male and female rats self-administered cocaine (0.5 mg/kg/inf IV, fixed-ratio 1 schedule, 2 h/session) over 20 sessions. On sessions 11, 14, 17, and 20, a tactile cue was present …

Effects Of Aging On Diurnal Transcriptome Change In The Mouse Corpus Callosum, Hidehiro Ishikawa, Tomonori Hoshino, Gen Hamanaka, Emiri T. Mandeville, Shuzhen Guo, Shintaro Kimura, Norito Fukuda, Wenlu Li, Akihiro Shindo, Sava Sakadzic, Mary E. Harrington, Eng H. Lo, Ken Arai

Neuroscience: Faculty Publications

The corpus callosum, a major white matter region central to cognitive function, is vulnerable to aging. Using zeitgeber time (ZT) aligned with environmental light/dark cycles, we investigated temporal gene expression patterns in the corpus callosum of young (5-month-old) and aged (24-month-old) mice using RNA-seq. Comparative analysis revealed more differentially expressed genes across ZT pairs in young mice than aged mice. In addition, complement pathway genes, including C4b, C3, C1qa, C1qb, and C1qc, were consistently upregulated in aged mice regardless of ZT. Furthermore, genes such as Etnppl, Tinagl1, Hspa12b, Ppp1r3c, Thbd, Pla2g3, and Tsc22d3 exhibited ZT-dependent rhythmicity in young mice, but …

The Effects Of Anchor Scheme On Performance Fatigability, Neuromuscular Responses, And Perceived Factors That Contributed To Task Termination During Fatiguing Tasks, Dolores G. Ortega, Robert W. Smith, Jocelyn E. Arnett, Tyler J. Neltner, Trevor D. Roberts, Justin S. Pioske, Richard J. Schmidt, Terry J. Housh

Journal for Sports Neuroscience

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of sustained, isometric forearm flexion tasks anchored to a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) versus torque on the composite, inter-, and intra-individual patterns of responses for torque and neuromuscular parameters, as well as the perceived factors that contributed to task termination. Methods: Ten men (mean ± SD: age = 20.9 ± 2.2 yrs.; height = 180.0 ± 5.1 cm; body mass = 81.3 ± 10.0 kg) performed maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MVICs) before and after sustained, isometric forearm flexion tasks anchored to RPE = 6 (RPE6_FT) and …