Virology Commons^™

Surveillance Of A Novel Vesivirus Discovered In An Urban Mephitis Mephitis Population, Amanda E. Diggins

Honors Theses and Capstones

Caliciviridae is a family of non-enveloped, positive-sense, single stranded RNA viruses, including eleven defined genera that contain important pathogens of humans and animals. Within the Caliciviridae family, the genus Vesiviridae includes feline calicivirus, a leading cause of upper respiratory disease in cats, and vesicular exanthema of swine virus, a historical disease of domestic swine that has now been implicated in several marine mammal vesicular diseases, one of which has been confirmed zoonotic. Urban landscapes create a unique environment for rapid intra- and interspecies transmission of viruses. Clustered resources attract high-density populations of synanthropic wildlife species, increasing spatial overlap and heightening …

Seroprevalence And Associated Risk Factors Of Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis (Cae) And Peste Des Petits Ruminants (Ppr) Among Deer In An Institutional Farm In Malaysia, Krishnan Nair Balakrishnan, Faez Firdaus Abdullah Jesse, Bura Thlama Paul, Shalonagiftsal Stephen C Charles, Ummul Rifhan Najiha Noor Zaman, Eric Lim Teik Chung, Nur Amira Azhar, Abdirahman Barre, Muhammed Mikail, Mohd Azmi Mohd Lila

The Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine

Caprine arthritis encephalitis (CAE) and peste des petits ruminants (PPR) are significant viral diseases impacting small ruminants, leading to substantial economic losses and posing a potential threat to livestock health. Although seroprevalence evidence of these viruses has been documented in ruminants, there is a lack of data regarding their presence among farmed deer in Malaysia. This preliminary study aimed to determine the seroprevalence and associated risk factors for CAEV and PPRV infections among deer in Malaysia. A total of ninety-two blood sera from an institutional deer farm were screened for CAEV and PPRV antibodies using commercially available indirect ELISA test …

Mdpk Cell Lines Can Be Used For In Vitro Antiviral Testing With Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (H5n1), Jada L. Westover

Student Research Symposium

• Outbreak in agricultural poultry starting in 2022
• In March 2024 first confirmed case in Dairy Cattle
• Tested drugs T705, Oseltamivir, Baloxivir, Ribavirin, EIDD-2947, and EIDD-2749 on three different cell lines
• Goal: See if MDBK cell lines could be used for in vitro studies

The Design, Construction, And Testing Of Mrna Vaccine Against Equine Herpes Virus, Bhawana Devkota

LSU Master's Theses

Equine Herpesvirus-1 (EHV 1) is a worldwide significant pathogen that causes respiratory illness, abortion, and neurological disorders in equine. Current vaccines, including live attenuated, inactivated, and subunit platforms, do not prevent viral latency, mucosal shedding, or cross-strain immunity, requiring alternative approaches. To address these gaps, this project explores the design, synthesis, and in vitro testing of an mRNA vaccine targeting immunogenic EHV 1 glycoprotein (gB, gC, gD, gG, and gM). Epitopes were computationally predicted using the Immune Epitope Database (IEDB), codon-optimized for Bos taurus, and cloned into pUCIDT vectors using SP6/T7 promoters. In vitro transcription (IVT) used nucleotide modifications …

Immuno-Bioinformatics Study Of Secondary Metabolites From Watercress Nasturtium Officinale As Immunostimulant In Whiteleg Shrimp Litopenaeus Vannamei By Targeting Peroxinectin And Scavenger Receptor Class B, Qurrota A’Yunin, Muhaimin Rifa’I, Maftuch Maftuch, Yoga Dwi Jatmiko, Muhammad Hermawan Widyananda, Triyanto Triyanto, Muhammad Tegar Handrianto

Karbala International Journal of Modern Science

The viral disease affects the whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) and causes losses. Immunostimulants are recognized as a more environmentally friendly approach to disease management and antimicrobial properties of aquatic organisms. Watercress (Nasturtium officinale) is an aquatic plant species that contains antioxidant properties that can protect the organism from disease and boost the immune system. Shrimp rely heavily on innate immunity to combat infectious agents due to their absence of adaptive immunity. Peroxinectin and scavenger receptor class B (SRB) play essential roles in the shrimp defense system. This research employs a bioinformatic to assess the immunostimulatory potential …

A Potential Of Watercress Nasturtium Officinale Bioactive Compounds In Inhibiting Infectious Myonecrosis Virus (Imnv) By Targeting Rna-Dependent Rna Polymerase (Rdrp) Virus From Several Countries: In Silico Approach, Qurrota A’Yunin, Fatchiyah Fatchiyah, Maftuch Maftuch, Feri Eko Hermanto, Muhammad Hermawan Widyananda, Narendra Santika Hartana, Muhaimin Rifa’I, Yoga Dwi Jatmiko

Karbala International Journal of Modern Science

Infectious myonecrosis virus (IMNV) disease causes mass mortality and decreased shrimp production. The RdRp region projects to the interior, where it may function in transcription. The focus of this study was to determine the effect of amino acid polymorphisms from several countries on the structure of RdRp and identify the potential of watercress in inhibiting IMNV by targeting the RdRp protein of IMNV through an in silico approach. The results showed that the structure of the IMNV RdRp protein from Indonesia was similar to Mexico, and the protein structure from India_QDN was identical to India_QIL. Ligand binding affinity values showed …

Increased Coding Potential Of Bovine Herpesvirus 1, Victoria Jefferson

Theses and Dissertations

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) costs the cattle industry millions of dollars in costs in treatment and loss every year in the United States. A significant pathogen often contributes to BRD is Bovine Herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1), a double stranded DNA virus with the ability to establish latency in the trigeminal ganglia and neurons. Primary infection with BoHV-1 results in immunosuppression that increases the risk of secondary bacterial infection and pneumonia. Because herpesviruses infect their hosts for life and can be reactivated in times of stress, BoHV-1 can present a recurring risk of BRD. The following research aims to expand the knowledge …

Potent Bile Acid Microbial Metabolites Modulate Clostridium Perfringens Virulence, Tahrir Jatli Alenezi, Ying Fu, Bilal Alrubaye, Thamer Alanazi, Ayidh Almansour, Hong Wang, Xiaolun Sun

Poultry Science Faculty Publications and Presentations

Clostridium perfringens is a versatile pathogen, inducing diseases in the skin, intestine (such as chicken necrotic enteritis (NE)), and other organs. The classical sign of NE is the foul smell gas in the ballooned small intestine. We hypothesized that deoxycholic acid (DCA) reduced NE by inhibiting C. perfringens virulence signaling pathways. To evaluate the hypothesis, C. perfringens strains CP1 and wild-type (WT) HN13 and its mutants were cultured with different bile acids, including DCA and isoallolithocholic acid (isoalloLCA). Growth, hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) production, and virulence gene expression were measured. Notably, isoalloLCA was more potent in reducing growth, H …

Bird Species Define The Relationship Between West Nile Viremia And Infectiousness To Culex Pipiens Mosquitoes, Jefferson A. Vaughan, Robert Newman, Michael J. Turrell

Biology Faculty Publications

The transmission cycle of West Nile virus (WNV) involves multiple species of birds. The relative importance of various bird species to the overall transmission is often inferred from the level and duration of viremia that they experience upon infection. Reports utilizing in vitro feeding techniques suggest that the source and condition of blood in which arboviruses are fed to mosquitoes can significantly alter the infectiousness of arbovirus to mosquitoes. We confirmed this using live hosts. A series of mosquito feedings with Culex pipiens was conducted on WNV-infected American robins and common grackles over a range of viremias. Mosquitoes were assayed …

Evaluation Of Protective Efficacy Of Viral Vector Based Swine Influenza Vaccine And A Method For B Cell Culture For Monoclonal Antibody Generation, Sushmita Kumari

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

Influenza A virus of the swine (IAV-S) is an economically important swine pathogen that has the potential to spread to humans, thus posing an ongoing public health concern due to its zoonotic potential. Hemagglutinin (HA), the most abundant viral envelope protein, is known to be the key protective antigen. Anti-HA antibodies alone, have been shown to prevent IAV infection. In this study we evaluated the feasibility of a recombinant tri segmented Pichinde virus (PICV) as a viral vector to deliver IAV-S hemagglutinin antigen in pigs. Four groups of weaned pigs (T01-04) were immunized twice with PBS, rPICV-GFP as a vector …

Harness Organoid Models For Virological Studies In Animals: A Cross-Species Perspective, Yongming Sang, Laura C. Miller, Rahul K. Nelli, Luis Gabriel Giménez-Lirola

Agricultural and Environmental Sciences Faculty Research

Animal models and cell culture in vitro are primarily used in virus and antiviral immune research. Whereas the limitation of these models to recapitulate the viral pathogenesis in humans has been made well aware, it is imperative to introduce more efficient systems to validate emerging viruses in both domestic and wild animals. Organoids ascribe to representative miniatures of organs (i.e., mini-organs), which are derived from three-dimensional culture of stem cells under respective differential conditions mimicking endogenous organogenetic niches. Organoids have broadened virological studies in the human context, particularly in recent uses for COVID19 research. This review examines the status and …

Effectiveness Of Pathogen-Specific Passive Antibodies To Mitigate Infectious Diseases In Apis Mellifera, Tanner Nordseth

Honors Thesis

Honeybees (Apis mellifera) are widely recognized as a vital part of the global ecosystem and the world's food supply due to their pivotal role in the pollination of both natural and agricultural flora. Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) is an emerging phenomenon characterized by a colony's worker bees deserting the hive and leaving the queen behind. This usually results in colony failure. CCD is a multifactorial issue, with many environmental stressors and pathogens playing a role. Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) has been identified as a leading cause in this phenomenon. Paenibacillus larvae (P. larvae) is another lethal pathogen that is …

New World Mammarenaviral Hemorrhagic Fever Virus Determinants Of Infection And Disease, Brady T. Hickerson

All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023

Several New World mammarenaviruses (NWM) are able to cause life-threatening hemorrhagic disease in humans. These agents use human transferrin receptor 1 (hTfR1), the main protein involved in cellular uptake of iron, to infect cells. Furthermore, use of hTfR1 correlates with the ability of these viruses to cause severe disease in humans. The most prevalent pathogenic NWM is Jun√≠n virus (JUNV), which is the etiological agent of Argentine hemorrhagic fever (AHF).The pathogenesis of AHF is poorly understood. A cardinal feature of severe cases of AHF is a prolonged increase of serum interferon-a (IFN-a) concentration. This increase is hypothesized to play a …

Investigation Of Rapid Diagnostic Tests For Characterization Of Mycobacterium Avium Complex (Mac) From Various Isolates And Identification Of Virulence Factors Of Porcine Reproductive And Respiratory Syndrome Virus (Prrsv) In Vitro, Claudia Antonika

UCARE: Research Products

Chapter 1

Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) has become one of the major problems in public health and livestock. Members of MAC, such as M. avium subsp paratuberculosis (MAP) and M. avium subsp hominissuis (MAH), are responsible for many opportunistic infections and the loss of livestock. MAP is economically significant to the beef and dairy industries because it is the etiologic agent of Johnes’s disease, a chronic and fatal enteritis in ruminants. Tracing the infection sources of MAC could be difficult since it infects many types of hosts in the natural environment. Furthermore, there is less information known about MAP pathogenicity …

Two (Or More) Viruses In One Bat: A Systematic Quantitative Literature Review Of Viral Coinfection In Bats, Eli J. Kaufman

Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection

Viral coinfection is an important topic in pathogen dynamics, and can increase viral shedding and change disease outcomes. As bats are carriers of important zoonoses, such as the SARS coronaviruses, rabies, and other deadly viruses, knowing more about their coinfection dynamics is important. This quantitative systematic literature review sought to show how many papers reported bat viral coinfections, and created three databases. The first database, the SQLR database was based on searches for coinfections. The second database, the Astrovirus database was to determine how much of the literature was being missed by examining a single viral family more in depth …

Obituary: Thomas Henry Kunz (1938–2020), Allen Kurta, Winifred F. Frick, M. Brock Fenton, Polly Campbell, Gary F. Mccracken, Robert M. Timm, Hugh H. Genoways

University of Nebraska State Museum: Mammalogy Papers

Dr. Thomas Henry Kunz, an internationally recognized expert on the ecology and behavior of bats and Professor at Boston University, passed away on April 13, 2020 in Dedham, Massachusetts, at the age of 81 as the result of complications from COVID-19. “Tom,” to his many friends and colleagues, was born on June 11, 1938 in Independence, Missouri, to William H. and Edna F. (Dornfeld) Kunz. He married Margaret Louise Brown on December 27, 1962 in Faucett, Missouri, Margaret’s hometown. Two children were born to Margaret and Tom—Pamela Kunz (Jeffrey Kwan) and David Kunz (Nicole, née D’Angelo), and five grandchildren.

As …

Environmental Sampling Techniques For Herd-Level Surveillance Of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus, Jaden Carlson

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

Control of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) relies on resource-intensive individual animal sampling to detect and remove persistently infected (PI) cattle. Herd-level surveillance tools would be useful for herds with unknown BVDV status and for monitoring herds with BVDV-free status. The overall objective of this thesis is to explore the viability of BVDV surveillance at a herd-level using samples collected without handling individual animals. The first objective was to determine the feasibility of using stable flies as a sampling tool to detect BVDV. The second objective was to determine the feasibility of using drinking water to detect BVDV. To accomplish …

Gtpase-Activating Protein-Binding Protein 1 Plays An Antiviral Role In Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus (Pedv) Replication, Kabita Pandey

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus (PEDV) is a non-segmented virus which uses one-stranded, positive-sense RNA as genetic material. PEDV falls under Coronaviridae family and extensive diarrhea and dehydration in nursing piglets are the major clinical signs. This emerging disease leads to huge economic loss in the pig farming. Very less studies are done towards the role of innate immunity in PEDV infection. The formation of Stress granules (SGs) are seen when cells are introduced to different stressful conditions, which also includes viral infections. SGs are formed when one of the four kinases: doublestranded RNA (dsRNA)-dependent protein kinase (PKR), PKR-like endoplasmic reticulum …

Cross-Reactive Immunity To Porcine Reproductive And Respiratory Syndrome Virus And Its Contribution To Protection, Ignacio Correas

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

Due to the vast geographical distribution and significant economic losses generated, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) can be considered the most important swine pathogen of contemporary times. Current control and eradication strategies against PRRSV have difficulty succeeding because of their complex nature and the absence of an effective vaccine. A major obstacle for PRRSV vaccine development is the broad heterogeneity of the virus, both at the genetic and antigenic level, its rapid evolution, and an incomplete knowledge of the immune responses responsible for clearing the virus from the host. Specifically, how known correlates of protection against PRRSV—neutralizing antibodies …

Regulation Of Alpha-Herpesvirus Reactivation From Latency By Stress, Insun Kook

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

Bovine herpes virus 1 (BHV-1) and Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) are crucial etiological viral agent of clinical diseases. HSV-1 and BHV-1 establish latent infection in sensory neurons. Periodically, reactivation from latency occurs resulting in virus excretion and transmission. Stress increases corticosteroid levels and the incidence of HSV-1 and BHV-1 reactivation from latency. The synthetic corticosteroid, dexamethasone (DEX) mimics stress and induces BHV-1 and HSV-1 reactivation. However, molecular mechanisms by which corticosteroid mediates viral reactivation are not well understood. My dissertation has focused on elucidating events that induce BHV- 1 or HSV-1 reactivation during the early stages of stress-induced escape …

Phylogenetic Investigation Of Enteric Bovine Coronavirus In Ireland Reveals Partitioning Between European And Global Strains, Lynda Gunn, P. J. Collins, M. J. O'Connell, Helen O'Shea

Department of Biological Sciences Publications

Background

Bovine coronavirus is a primary cause of neonatal calf diarrhea worldwide, and is also associated with acute diarrhea in adult cattle during the winter season. There are no reports on molecular characterization of bovine coronavirus in Ireland, and little data exists apart from serological studies.

Findings

In this study, 11 neonatal (mean age 9 days) calf BCoV strains from the south of Ireland were collected over a one year period and characterized using molecular methods. The spike gene which encodes a protein involved in viral entry, infectivity and immune response shows the most variability amongst the isolates and was …

A Tail Of Two Phages: Genomic And Functional Analysis Of Listeria Monocytogenes Phages Vb_Lmos_188 And Vb_Lmos_293 Reveal The Receptor-Binding Proteins Involved In Host Specificity, Aidan Casey, Kieran Jordan, Horst Neve, Aidan Coffey, Olivia Mcauliffe

Department of Biological Sciences Publications

The physical characteristics of bacteriophages establish them as viable candidates for downstream development of pathogen detection assays and biocontrol measures. To utilize phages for such purposes, a detailed knowledge of their host interaction mechanisms is a prerequisite. There is currently a wealth of knowledge available concerning Gram-negative phage-host interaction, but little by comparison for Gram-positive phages and Listeria phages in particular. In this research, the lytic spectrum of two recently isolated Listeria monocytogenes phages (vB_LmoS_188 and vB_LmoS_293) was determined, and the genomic basis for their observed serotype 4b/4e host-specificity was investigated using comparative genomics. The late tail genes of these …

Genome-Wide Analysis Of The Variation In Host Genetics In Response To Experimental Challenges With Porcine Circovirus 2b, Taylor B. Engle

Department of Animal Science: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

Porcine circovirus is the primary causative agent responsible for inducing a group of associated diseases known as porcine circovirus associated diseases (PCVAD), which can have detrimental effects on production efficiency as well as lead to mortality. The variation in host genetics plays a role in the ability to initiate an effective immune response. The objective of this research was to identify major genetic variants and genes that influence immune response and PCVAD susceptibility. Commercial crossbred pigs (n=974) were experimentally infected with a PCV2b strain to analyze genetic sources of variation in PCVAD susceptibility. The strain used for experimental infection was …

Phages Of Non-Diary Lactococci: Isolation And Characterization Of Phi L47, A Phage Infecting The Grass Isolate Lactococcus Lactis Ssp Cremoris Dpc6860, Daniel Cavanagh, Caitríona M. Guinane, Horst Neve, Aidan Coffey, R. Paul Ross, Gerald F. Fitzgerald, Olivia Mcauliffe

Department of Biological Sciences Publications

Lactococci isolated from non-dairy sources have been found to possess enhanced metabolic activity when compared to dairy strains. These capabilities may be harnessed through the use of these strains as starter or adjunct cultures to produce more diverse flavor profiles in cheese and other dairy products. To understand the interactions between these organisms and the phages that infect them, a number of phages were isolated against lactococcal strains of non-dairy origin. One such phage, ΦL47, was isolated from a sewage sample using the grass isolate L. lactis ssp. cremoris DPC6860 as a host. Visualization of phage virions by transmission electron …

Cell-Mediated Immunity In Porcine Reproductive And Respiratory Syndrome Virus, Rajeshwari Parida

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus is a significant swine pathogen which exhibits considerable sequence diversity. In an attempt to identify highly conserved T-cell epitopes contained in proteins of this virus, we examined heptadecamer peptides spanning the sequence of the PRRSV nonstructural proteins 9, 10 and 11, all of them are highly conserved, for their ability to elicit a recall proliferative and interferon-gamma response in peripheral blood mononuclear cells obtained from pigs immunized against the type-II PRRSV strain FL-12. These studies led to the identification of seven peptides, two from each NSP 9 and NSP 10 and, three from NSP …

Group Size And Nest Spacing Affect Buggy Creek Virus (Togaviridae: Alphavirus) Infection In Nestling House Sparrows, Valerie A. Brown, Charles R. Brown

Papers in Ornithology

The transmission of parasites and pathogens among vertebrates often depends on host population size, host species diversity, and the extent of crowding among potential hosts, but little is known about how these variables apply to most vector-borne pathogens such as the arboviruses (arthropod-borne viruses). Buggy Creek virus (BCRV; Togaviridae: Alphavirus) is an RNA arbovirus transmitted by the swallow bug (Oeciacus vicarius) to the cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) and the introduced house sparrow (Passer domesticus) that has recently invaded swallow nesting colonies. The virus has little impact on cliff swallows, but house sparrows are seriously …

Effect Of The Infection With Porcine Reproductive And Respiratory Syndrome Virus On The Regulation Of Cytokines: Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha And Interleukin-10, Sakthivel Subramaniam

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) causes late-term abortion in sows and pneumonia in growing piglets. PRRSV evades the host immune response by several mechanisms, including the modulation of cytokine secretions in infected pigs, which is the subject of this dissertation. Particularly, PRRSV reduces the secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) but increases the secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10). The latter effect, however, is PRRSV strain-specific. In this dissertation, we have examined mechanisms by which PRRSV regulates TNF-α and IL-10 expressions. The pathogenic strain FL12, derived from a PRRSV infectious clone, consistently suppressed TNF-α …

Isolation By Distance Explains Genetic Structure Of Buggy Creek Virus, A Bird-Associated Arbovirus, Abinash Padhi, Amy T. Moore, Mary Bomberger Brown, Jerome E. Foster, Martin Pfeffer, Charles R. Brown

School of Natural Resources: Faculty Publications

Many of the arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) show extensive genetic variability and are widely distributed over large geographic areas. Understanding how virus genetic structure varies in space may yield insight into how these pathogens are adapted to and dispersed by different hosts or vectors, the relative importance of mutation, drift, or selection in generating genetic variability, and where and when epidemics or epizootics are most likely to occur. However, because most arboviruses tend to be sampled opportunistically and often cannot be isolated in large numbers at a given locale, surprisingly little is known about their spatial genetic structure on the local …

Winter Ecology Of Buggy Creek Virus (Togaviridae, Alphavirus) In The Central Great Plains, Charles R. Brown, Stephanie A. Strickler, Amy T. Moore, Sarah A. Knutie, Abinash Padhi, Mary Bomberger Brown, Ginger R. Young, Valerie A. O'Brien, Jerome E. Foster, Nicholas Komar

School of Natural Resources: Faculty Publications

A largely unanswered question in the study of arboviruses is the extent to which virus can overwinter in adult vectors during the cold winter months and resume the transmission cycle in summer. Buggy Creek virus (BCRV; Togaviridae, Alphavirus) is an unusual arbovirus that is vectored primarily by the swallow bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae: Oeciacus vicarius) and amplified by the ectoparasitic bug’s main avian hosts, the migratory cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) and resident house sparrow (Passer domesticus). Bugs are sedentary and overwinter in the swallows’ mud nests. We evaluated the prevalence of BCRV and extent of …

Phylogeographical Structure And Evolutionary History Of Two Buggy Creek Virus Lineages In The Western Great Plains Of North America, Abinash Padhi, Amy T. Moore, Mary Bomberger Brown, Jerome E. Foster, Martin Pfeffer, Kathryn P. Gaines, Valerie A. O'Brien, Stephanie A. Strickler, Allison E. Johnson, Charles R. Brown

School of Natural Resources: Faculty Publications

Buggy Creek virus (BCRV) is an unusual arbovirus within the western equine encephalitis complex of alphaviruses. Associated with cimicid swallow bugs (Oeciacus vicarius) as its vector and the cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) and house sparrow (Passer domesticus) as its amplifying hosts, this virus is found primarily in the western Great Plains of North America at spatially discrete swallow nesting colonies. For 342 isolates collected in Oklahoma, Nebraska, Colorado, and North Dakota, from 1974 to 2007, we sequenced a 2076 bp region of the 26S subgenomic RNA structural glycoprotein coding region, and analyzed phylogenetic relationships, …