Immunology and Infectious Disease Commons^™

Genital Tract Infections, The Vaginal Microbiome And Gestational Age At Birth Among Pregnant Women In South Africa: A Cohort Study Protocol, Ranjana M.S. Gigi, Mandisa M. Mdingi, Hyunsul Jung, Shantelle Claassen-Weitz, Lukas Bütikofer, Jeffrey D. Klausner, Christina A. Muzny, Christopher M. Taylor, Janneke H.H.M. Van De Wijgert, Remco P.H. Peters, Nicola Low

School of Medicine Faculty Publications

Introduction Preterm birth complications are the most common cause of death in children under 5 years. The presence of multiple microorganisms and genital tract inflammation could be the common mechanism driving early onset of labour. South Africa has high levels of preterm birth, genital tract infections and HIV infection among pregnant women. We plan to investigate associations between the presence of multiple lower genital tract microorganisms in pregnancy and gestational age at birth. Methods and analysis This cohort study enrols around 600 pregnant women at one public healthcare facility in East London, South Africa. Eligible women are ≥18 years and …

Hepatoprotective Effect Of Berberis Lycium In Αlpha-Naphthylisothiocyanate Induced Cholestatic Mouse Models, Shamaila Bashir, Hassan Hameed, Nida Irshad, Aqsa Ashraf, Muhammad Faizan, Saiyada Fatima Maida Halim, Hafiz M. Mazhar Asjad, Andleeb Batool, Imran Sohail

Journal of Bioresource Management

Cholestasis is characterized by the obstruction of bile flow from hepatocytes to the intestine. It results in accumulation of bile acids in the liver, which cause oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, fibrosis, and cirrhosis. Till now, the treatment options against cholestasis are limited. Therefore, there is an utmost requirement to develop and evaluate the drugs with potential anti-cholestatic effects. In the current study, the drug-induced cholestasis mouse models were generated via oral administration of α-naphthylisothiocyanate (ANIT). The mice were placed into three groups of six animals each. Group I was the control group and was given saline. The cholestasis model Group …

The Potential Of Stem Cell Therapy In Multiple Sclerosis Treatment: A Review, Sorina Amarculesei, Ava O'Meara Cushen, Cathy Brougham

SURE Journal: Science Undergraduate Research Experience Journal

Multiple Sclerosis is an autoimmune and neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system. There are currently 2.8 million people living with Multiple Sclerosis worldwide, including 9000 people in Ireland, with a prevalence of 193 per 100,000 people. Symptoms of Multiple Sclerosis include sensory loss, fatigue, cognitive dysfunction, spasticity, depression, optic neuritis, gait ataxia, diplopia, and loss of bladder control. Currently, there is no standardised treatment or cure for Multiple Sclerosis with many strategies focusing on symptoms. Stem cells have emerged as promising approaches for Multiple Sclerosis therapeutics. Clinical trials primarily focus on mesenchymal stem cell-based therapies for Multiple Sclerosis. Furthermore, …

Treatment Response Of Gingival Squamous-Cell Carcinoma To Palliative Intent Immunotherapy, Natalia Trehan, Angelina Debbas, Mykaihla Sternick, Jennifer Johnson, James Gates

Department of Medical Oncology Faculty Papers

The use of PD-1 immune checkpoint inhibitor medications has become a common practice in the treatment of recurrent and metastatic head and neck squamous-cell carcinomas. Success in this setting has led to the investigation of their efficacy in locally advanced cases as a part of first-line therapy. In this report, we detail the treatment response to palliative intent immunotherapy of three geriatric patients with mandibular gingival squamous-cell carcinoma who decided against surgical intervention. Patient #1 was treated with pembrolizumab, a PD-1 inhibitor, and displayed complete clinical and radiologic response of the gingival mass after three months of treatment, which is …

Role Of The Anti-Viral Immune Response In Neural Cell Modulation And Neurological Sequelae Of Childhood Viral Infections, Yashika Kamte

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Viral infections of the central nervous system (CNS) often result in neurological sequelae and are considered a risk factor for the development of neurological disease. Moreover, the outcomes of a viral infection are largely dependent on the age of the host, with younger hosts developing more profound neuropathology. Perhaps the developing brain coupled with an immature immune system contributes to worse outcomes in the very young. Children suffering from brain infections are more prone to develop enduring neurological impairments even after recovery from the infection. Although majority of the brain growth occurs in utero, neurodevelopment continues throughout the juvenile …

The Effect Of Db1976 On The Fibrotic Response In Three-Spined Stickleback (Gasterosteus Aculeatus), Saif Quraishi

Honors Scholar Theses

The study of fibrosis in stickleback has been a growing field in which there have been a few studies conducted. This study examines two experiments involving the inhibition of fibrosis in stickleback. The first experiment used fish from the Kenai River Flats (KRF) in Alaska. The second experiment used fish from Roselle Lake in British Columbia, Canada. To determine the impact the drug had on fibrosis, sticklebacks from the KRF population were treated with DB1976 as well as alum, a pro‐inflammatory vaccine adjuvant that causes fibrosis (Kool et. al 2012). When each DB1976 + alum treatment group was compared with …

Towards A Mode Of Action For The Anti-Schistosomal Aryl Hydantoins, Thomas Schulze

Theses & Dissertations

Schistosomiasis is a significant human disease caused by the helminth parasite Schistosoma mansoni. Praziquantel remains the only clinically used treatment, yet it is rapidly metabolized and only effective against the adult stage worm infection. Ro 13-3978 (AR02) is a potent antischistosomal compound with activity against multiple S. mansoni life stages; however, it manifests anti-androgenic activity. Additionally, the mechanism of action for worm clearance remains unknown. The structure of Ro 13-3979 was used to generate optimized derivatives, including AR102, that show increased potency towards worms, reduced off-target anti-androgen effects, and extended half-life thereby increasing the feasibility for a single-dose curative treatment. …

Understanding The Effect Of Chikungunya Virus Infection On Bone Homeostasis, Enakshi Roy

Theses & Dissertations

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a mosquito-borne virus that causes Chikungunya fever (CHIKF), characterized by high fever, headache, rash, and joint pain. With global travel on the rise, infections caused by CHIKV have emerged in new regions, expanding their geographic range and infecting susceptible hosts. Currently, no approved prophylactic or therapeutic measures exist to prevent or treat these infections, with prevention strategies primarily focused on vector control. However, these measures have proven inadequate due to the emergence of mutations that enhance viral transmission or vector range. Therefore, urgent attention is needed to develop therapies to treat the infection. Although CHIKV has …

Role Of The Ganglioside Gd2 And Its Biosynthetic Enzyme Gd3 Synthase In Prostate Cancer Tumorigenesis, Aaqib Bhat

Theses & Dissertations

Despite significant advancements in managing localized prostate cancer (PC), which have notably increased survival rates, advanced PC continues to be a leading cause of cancer- related fatalities. The discovery of new pathways that can be targeted to inhibit tumor growth in PC could pave the way for innovative treatment strategies. The disialylganglioside GD2 is an FDA-approved target for antibody therapies in neuroblastoma and has not been extensively studied in the context of PC. The work done in this thesis reveals that GD2 is present on a minor subset of PC cells in certain patients and is more prevalent in metastatic …

Role Of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone 2 And Its Receptor In Human Reproductive Cancers, Dr. Amy T. Desaulniers, Brett White

School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences: Faculty Publications

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH1) and its receptor (GnRHR1) drive reproduction by regulating gonadotropins. Another form, GnRH2, and its receptor (GnRHR2), also exist in mammals. In humans, GnRH2 and GnRHR2 genes are present, but coding errors in the GnRHR2 gene are predicted to hinder full-length protein production. Nonetheless, mounting evidence supports the presence of a functional GnRHR2 in humans. GnRH2 and its receptor have been identified throughout the body, including peripheral reproductive tissues like the ovary, uterus, breast, and prostate. In addition, GnRH2 and its receptor have been detected in a wide number of reproductive cancer cells in humans. Notably, GnRH2 analogues …

Association Of Chlamydia Trachomatis Burden With The Vaginal Microbiota, Bacterial Vaginosis, And Metronidazole Treatment, Caleb M. Ardizzone, Christopher M. Taylor, Evelyn Toh, Rebecca A. Lillis, Jacob H. Elnaggar, John W. Lammons, Patricia Dehon Mott, Emily L. Duffy, Li Shen, Alison J. Quayle

School of Graduate Studies Faculty Publications

Bacterial vaginosis (BV), a dysbiosis of the vaginal microbiota, is a common coinfection with Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct), and BV-associated bacteria (BVAB) and their products have been implicated in aiding Ct evade natural immunity. Here, we determined if a non-optimal vaginal microbiota was associated with a higher genital Ct burden and if metronidazole, a standard treatment for BV, would reduce Ct burden or aid in natural clearance of Ct infection. Cervicovaginal samples were collected from women at enrollment and, if testing positive for Ct infection, at a follow-up visit approximately one week later. Cervical Ct burden was assessed by inclusion forming …

Isolation And Characterization Of Nut Shell Proteins From Arachis Hypogea Linn. And Cocos Nucifera Linn. And Its Effect On Macrophage Activation To Treat Visceral Leishmaniasis, Suhatha S

Theses and Dissertations

Glycoproteins are among several immunomodulatory agents known to activate the innate immune system. Plant derived glycoproteins are a generous source of glycoproteins that could be utilized as cost effective preparations for therapeutics. Isolating glycoproteins from agricultural by- products with the intention to use them against Visceral Leishmaniasis (VL) was the focus in this doctoral study. The two nut shells, Arachis hypogea L. (Groundnut) and Cocos nucifera L. (Coconut), were used for the isolation of glycoprotein used in the study. Crude glycoproteins from the A. hypogea L. (AHP-C) were isolated and fractioned. AHP-F2 was identified as 28.37 kDa Mannose/Glucose binding lectin …

The Defined Tlr3 Agonist, Nexavant, Exhibits Anti-Cancer Efficacy And Potentiates Anti-Pd-1 Antibody Therapy By Enhancing Immune Cell Infiltration, Seung-Hwan Lee, Young-Ho Choi, Soon Myung Kang, Min-Gyu Lee, Arnaud Debin, Eric Perouzel, Seung-Beom Hong, Dong-Ho Kim

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Nexavant was reported as an alternative to the TLR3 agonist of Poly(I:C) and its derivatives. The physicochemical properties, signaling pathways, anti-cancer effects, and mechanisms of Nexavant were investigated. The distinctive characteristics of Nexavant compared to that of Poly(I:C) were demonstrated by precise quantification, enhanced thermostability, and increased resistance to RNase A. Unlike Poly(I:C), which activates TLR3, RIG-I, and MDA5, Nexavant stimulates signaling through TLR3 and RIG-I but not through MDA5. Compared to Poly(I:C), an intratumoral Nexavant treatment led to a unique immune response, immune cell infiltration, and suppression of tumor growth in various animal cancer models. Nexavant therapy outperformed anti-PD-1 …

Resolution Of The Tetrabothrius Jagerskioeldi Cryptic Species Complex Among Holarctic Alcidae (Charadriiformes): Cestodes Among Fraterculinae—Exploring Marine Diversity, Host Range, And Dynamic Oceanography In The Greater North Pacific, Eric P. Hoberg, Kaylen Marie Soudachanh, Svetlana K. Bondarenko

MANTER: Journal of Parasite Biodiversity

In the biosphere, limits for diversity among species, communities, and biomes are revealed through intensive and extensive field-based inventory and assembly of voucher specimens and associated informatics examined in a phylogenetic, historical, ecological, and biogeographic arena. Archival resources for specimens and information contribute to a cumulative view of faunal structure and assembly under a comparative umbrella. Ultimately, species definitions, and inclusive partitions among populations and lineages, are fundamental in articulating hypotheses that examine interactions about evolution, the nature of organisms, and the condition of environments across space and time. We conclude our proposals establishing species limits for tapeworms of the …

+Protective Roles For Interferon-Gamma In Astrocytes During Chronic Autoimmunity, Brandon C. Smith

ETD Archive

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory and neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Infiltrating inflammatory immune cells perpetuate demyelination and axonal damage in the CNS and significantly contribute to pathology and clinical deficits. Interferon (IFN)γ is classically described as deleterious in acute CNS autoimmunity, we and others have shown astrocytic IFNγ signaling also has a neuroprotective role. We found IFNγ signaling on astrocytes upregulates subunits of the immunoproteasome (iP) and programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1), both of which serve protective roles during autoimmunity. Astrocyte-specific knockouts of Ifngr1 resulted in increased clinical severity in the MS murine model, experimental …

Induction Of Protective Immunity In The Respiratory Tract With Ricin Toxin Immune Complexes, Lindsey Elizabeth Tolman

Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)

Ricin toxin (RT) is generated in the seeds of Ricinus communis. The highly potent toxin is comprised of two subunits, RTA and RTB. RT enters cells using RTB before RTA separates itself and inactivates the ribosome, inducing cell stress, inflammation, and eventual death. RT is particularly damaging in the respiratory tract, where intoxication induces an inflammatory cytokine storm.Though there are currently no therapeutics for RT intoxication, our group has generated and characterized a wide variety of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against RT. Among the top candidates in our collection are the IgGs PB10 and SylH3. Previous studies have demonstrated their exceptional …

Characterizing The Regulation Of Candida Albicans Hyphal Morphogenesis In The Context Of Host Macrophages, Hannah Wilson

Dissertations and Theses (Open Access)

Candida albicans is a commensal fungus that resides on the skin, mucosal surfaces, and in the gut of an estimated 80% of individuals. Though generally harmless, C. albicans is capable of causing uncomfortable mucosal infections as well as deadly disseminated infections depending on the immune status of the host. Although antifungal therapeutics exist, the mortality rate associated with disseminated disease still lingers around 50%. Further, C. albicans is the fourth most common cause of all bloodstream infections and continues to present as a major clinical issue with less than satisfactory treatment options. For this reason, it is imperative to understand …

Phylogenomics Reveals The History Of Host Use In Mosquitoes, John Soghigan, Charles Sither, Silvia Andrade Justi, Gen Morinaga, Brian K. Cassel, Christopher J. Vitek, Todd P. Livdahl, Siyang Xia, Andrea Gloria-Soria, Jeffrey R. Powell, Thomas Zavortink, Christopher M. Hardy, Nathan D. Burkett-Cadena, Lawrence E. Reeves, Richard C. Wilkerson, Robert R. Dunn, David K. Yeates, Maria Anice Sallum, Brian D. Byrd, Michelle D. Trautwein, Yvonne-Marie Linton, Michael H. Reiskind, Brian M. Wiegmann

Biology

Mosquitoes have profoundly affected human history and continue to threaten human health through the transmission of a diverse array of pathogens. The phylogeny of mosquitoes has remained poorly characterized due to difficulty in taxonomic sampling and limited availability of genomic data beyond the most important vector species. Here, we used phylogenomic analysis of 709 single copy ortholog groups from 256 mosquito species to produce a strongly supported phylogeny that resolves the position of the major disease vector species and the major mosquito lineages. Our analyses support an origin of mosquitoes in the early Triassic (217 MYA [highest posterior density region: …

Intestinal Microbiome, Fecal Fermentation Profile, And Health Indices In Hiv Infected Men Versus Non-Infected Controls, Mary Andreae, Mary C. Andreae Mrs

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Many HIV-positive (HIV+) males on Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy (HAART) experience metabolic abnormalities, including Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) and lipodystrophy. The intestinal microbiota and short chain fatty acids (SCFA), participate in bidirectional communication with their host. Dysbiosis in HIV+ males on HAART demonstrate a Prevotella-rich enterotype shaped by multiple factors including, medications, adiposity, diet, intestinal permeability, and lifestyle; our objective was to investigate these factors. 19 HIV+ and 21 HIV- males were enrolled. BMI and hip-to-waist ratio (H:W) were obtained, and FibroScan for liver health. Intestinal permeability markers Claudin-21, flagellin, and intestinal fatty acid binding protein (IFABP) in …

Immunization With The Amino-Terminus Region Of Dense Granule Protein 6 (Gra6) Of Toxoplasma Gondii Activates Cd8+ Cytotoxic T Cells Capable Of Removing Tissue Cysts Of The Parasite Through Antigen Presentation By Human Hla-A2.1, Rajesh Mani, Corinne Mercier, Marie-France Delauw, Yasuhiro Suzuki

Markey Cancer Center Faculty Publications

CD8þ T cells from HLA-A2.1-transgenic mice, but not wild-type mice, immunized with the amino- terminus region (aa 41e152) of dense granule protein 6 (GRA6Nt) of Toxoplasma gondii secreted large amounts of perforin and granzyme B in response to GRA6Nt through antigen presentation by HLA-A2.1 in vitro. When those CD8þ T cells were transferred into chronically infected HLA-A2.1-expressing NSG mice deficient in T cells, cerebral cyst burden of the recipients of HLA-A2.1-transgenic T cells, but not of WT T cells, became significantly less than that of control mice with no cell transfer. Furthermore, the significant reduction of the cyst burden by …

Effect Of Macrophage Expressed Α7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (Α7nachr) On Migration Of Macrophages During Inflammation, Kasey Keever

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition characterized by overwhelming inflammation, resulting in organ system damage, leading to a high mortality rate. Care in the clinical setting is supportive, and there are no approved sepsis-specific treatments. In septic mice, activation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway decreases cytokine secretion by leukocytes and improves survival. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway is a reflex of the parasympathetic nervous system, converging on the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine (α7nAChR) at the surface of macrophages. Signaling through the receptor blocks NF-kB activation, thus cytokine secretion. Receptor activation has other effects on macrophages, including modulating their migration to …

Re: Incidence Of Sars-Cov-2 Breakthrough Infections After Vaccination In Adults: A Population-Based Survey Through 1 March 2023, Stacia M Desantis, Ashraf Yaseen, Tianyao Hao, Luis León-Novelo, Yashar Talebi, Melissa A Valerio-Shewmaker, Cesar L Pinzon Gomez, Sarah E Messiah, Harold W Kohl, Steven H Kelder, Jessica A Ross, Lindsay N Padilla, Mark Silberman, Samantha Wylie, David Lakey, Jennifer A Shuford, Stephen J Pont, Eric Boerwinkle, Michael D Swartz

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

No abstract provided.

Development Of Novel Methods To Study Host-Microbe Interactions In The Larval Zebrafish Gastrointestinal Tract, Anh K. Trinh Nguyen

Dissertations and Theses (Open Access)

The dynamic nature and inaccessible location of the intestine pose significant challenges to the study of intestinal physiology and pathology. Zebrafish larvae, possessing optical transparency and genetic tractability, offer an accessible and clinically relevant model for investigating dynamic events in the intestine via time-lapse imaging. In the first part of this work, I discuss our efforts to optimize the parameters of a foodborne infection assay using paramecia as a vehicle. This method provides an effective, high-throughput alternative to infection via immersion or oral gavage, and replicates the most common route of transmission of gastrointestinal (GI) infection in humans. The foodborne …

Cellular Mechanism Of Pentagalloyl Glucose-Mediated Prevention And Reversal Of Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms, Greg Halsey

All Dissertations

Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) has been the 15th leading cause of death in persons older than 55 for the past ten years in several Western countries, with rupture resulting in an almost 100% mortality rate. AAA is a focal dilation of the aorta characterized by progressive loss of elastin and vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs), as well as persistent inflammatory response [1]. The only treatment for AAA is surgery; however, the mortality post-procedure is still 1-4%, with a 15-30% chance of morbidity [2].

Pentagalloyl glucose (PGG) treatment is effective in the reversal of AAA. While its stabilizing interactions with extracellular …

Characterization Of The Effects Of The Pyrazolopyrimidine Inhibitor Grassofermata (Nav-2729) In The Eukaryotic Pathogen Trypanosoma Brucei, Kristina Marie Parman

All Dissertations

The protozoan pathogen, Trypanosoma brucei, is the causative agent of sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in livestock in sub-Saharan Africa. T. brucei cycles between tsetse fly and mammalian hosts, and it is adapted to survive in diverse host tissues. Variant Surface Glycoprotein (VSG) plays a key role in immune evasion in the mammalian host. The VSG membrane anchor requires two myristates, 14-carbon saturated fatty acids (FAs) that are scarce in the host. T. brucei can synthesize FAs de novo, but also readily takes up exogenous FAs, despite lacking homologs to fatty acid uptake proteins found in other …

Neural Damage Following Francisella Tularensis Infection, Anahis Tena

Open Access Theses & Dissertations

This dissertation investigates the impact of Francisella tularensis infection on the brain, focusing on its anatomical localization, effects on synaptic health, and behavioral and cognitive consequences in mice. Employing a combination of fluorescent tagging, confocal and light sheet microscopy, the study first maps bacterial foci within the brain, anticipating a concentration in the limbic system, particularly the hippocampus. Subsequently, it examines synaptic function post-infection using calcium imaging in various neuronal cultures, expecting a decrease in calcium signaling indicative of synaptic impairment. Finally, behavioral assays like the forced swim test, object recognition test, and Morris Water Maze assess the cognitive and …

Evaluation Of The Efficacy Of Synthetic Glycovaccines Against Both Murine Acute Chagas Disease And Cutaneous Leishmaniasis, Colin D. Knight

Open Access Theses & Dissertations

Chagas disease (CD) and cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) are neglected tropical diseases caused by the protozoan trypanosomatids, Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp., respectively. There are approximately 6-8 million people infected with T. cruzi worldwide and ~300,000 people in the US. Between 700,000 and 1.2 million new cases of CL occur worldwide yearly. The approved chemotherapies for both diseases are partially effective and may cause serious adverse events, resulting in premature treatment interruption. Moreover, no effective vaccine for either disease is available. Therefore, developing a vaccine that would provide effective cross-protection against both diseases would provide a cost-effective alternative to the existing …

Localization, Tissue Biology, And T Cell State — Implications For Cancer Immunotherapy, Jason M Schenkel, Kristen E Pauken

Faculty, Staff and Student Publications

Tissue localization is a critical determinant of T cell immunity. CD8+ T cells are contact-dependent killers, which requires them to physically be within the tissue of interest to kill peptide-MHC class I-bearing target cells. Following their migration and extravasation into tissues, T cells receive many extrinsic cues from the local microenvironment, and these signals shape T cell differentiation, fate and function. Because major organ systems are variable in their functions and compositions, they apply disparate pressures on T cells to adapt to the local microenvironment. Additional complexity arises in the context of malignant lesions (either primary or metastatic), and this …

The Endoparasite Fauna Of Mesopredatory Mesopelagic Teleosts, Alexander U. Rayburn

All HCAS Student Capstones, Theses, and Dissertations

The ecology of the mesopelagic zone is an understudied area of the open ocean, with few diet studies even for dominant fish species. Since endoparasites are generally transmitted trophically, descriptions of the parasite communities within fishes can often provide additional insights on food web interactions. This project assesses the endoparasite faunal community of mesopredatory mesopelagic teleosts to better understand mesopelagic food webs in the South Atlantic Bight. Fishes in the Families Alepisauridae (lancetfishes), Gempylidae (snake mackerels), Bramidae (pomfrets), and Scombrolabracidae (longfin escolar) are frequent bycatch in the pelagic longline fishery targeting swordfish Xiphias gladius and thunnid tunas, yet the ecology …

Human-Bat Interactions In A Disease Emergence Hotspot: Implications For Human Health And Bat Conservation, Reilly Tempest Jackson

Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Bats are an ecologically important taxon that can host zoonotic pathogens. Globally, many bat species are synanthropic and live closely with humans, often roosting in man-made structures. The spatial overlap between humans and bats creates opportunities for human-bat contact, which can lead to human exposure to bat-borne pathogens and conflicts that cause bat mortality. Despite this risk, little is known about the drivers and characteristics of these human-bat interactions in buildings and work is needed to understand this aspect of the wildlife-urban interface. In Chapter I, I present a literature review that identifies the geographic and taxonomic trends in reported …